Eastern woodlands of the United States

Last updated

Maritime slash pine savannah in Gulf Coastal Plain southern Mississippi Grand Bay NOAA Nerr0754.jpg
Maritime slash pine savannah in Gulf Coastal Plain southern Mississippi

The eastern woodlands of the United States covered large portions of the southeast side of the continent until the early 20th century. These were in a fire ecology of open grassland and forests with low ground cover of herbs and grasses.

Contents

The frequent fires which maintained the woodlands were started by the region's many thunderstorms and Native Americans, with most fires burning the forest understory and not affecting the mature trees above. Before the arrival of humans about 15,000 years ago, lightning would have been the major source of ignition, the region having the most frequent wind and lightning storms in North America. [1] [2] [3] [4] The European settlers who displaced the natives blended the local use of fire with their customary use of fire as pastoral herdsmen in the British Isles, Spain, and France. [1]

In the southern pine savanna, each area burned about every 1–4 years; after settlers arrived burning happened about every 1–3 years. In oak–hickory areas, estimates range from 3 to 14 years, although trails were kept open with fire. [1]

Prehistoric southeastern flora

Hypothesized natural fire regimes of United States plants. Grassy woodlands have regimes of a few years: blue, pink, and light green areas. Wildland Fire in Ecosystems 15-1-2.png
Hypothesized natural fire regimes of United States plants. Grassy woodlands have regimes of a few years: blue, pink, and light green areas.

Of all the United States, southeastern flora has been least changed in composition during the last 20,000 years. During the Last Glacial Maximum about 18,000 years ago, when the glacial front extended south to the approximate location of the Ohio River, preexisting natural communities in the Southeast remained largely intact. As a result, the Southeast contains a high level of endemism and genetic diversity as would be expected of an old flora. [5] Temperate deciduous forests dominated from about 33° to 30° N. latitude, including most of the glacial Gulf Coast from about 84° W. longitude. The coastline later changed during glacial melt, both in the Mississippi River valley and sea level rise of 130 meters (430 ft). Regional climate was similar to or slightly drier than modern conditions. Oak, hickory, chestnut, and southern pine species were abundant. Walnuts, beech, sweetgum, alder, birch, tulip tree, elms, hornbeams, tilias, and others that are generally common in modern southern deciduous forests were also common then. Grasses, sedges, and sunflowers were also common. Extensive mesophytic forest communities, similar to modern lowland and bottomland forests, occurred along major river drainages, especially the Mississippi embayment, the Alabama-Coosa-Tallapoosa Basin, the Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint Basin, and the Savannah River Basin. [6]

Humans arrived as five thousand years passed following the retreat of the glaciers, while deciduous forests expanded northward throughout the region. Pockets of boreal elements remained only at high elevations in the Appalachian Mountains and in a few other refuges. Broadleaf evergreen and pine forests occupied an extent similar to their current one, primarily in the Atlantic Coastal Plain. Mesophytic and bottomland forest communities continued to occupy the major river drainages of the region. [6]

Although the major modern community types were flourishing in the Southeast by 10,000 years BP, and the climate was similar to that today, the understory flora had not yet come to resemble modern herbaceous floras. Mixed hardwood forests dominated the majority of the upper Coastal Plains, Piedmont, and lower mountain regions. Southern pine communities dominated the middle and lower Coastal Plains, whereas evergreens and some remnant boreal elements occupied higher elevation sites. There were few canopy openings in the mixed hardwood and high-elevation forest. [6]

Warming and drying during the Holocene climatic optimum began about 9,000 years ago and affected the vegetation of the Southeast. Extensive expansions of prairies and woody grasslands occurred throughout the region, and xeric oak and oak-hickory forest types proliferated. Cooler-climate species migrated northward and upward in elevation; many vanished from the region during this period while others were limited to isolated refuges. This retreat caused a proportional increase in pine-dominated forests in the Appalachians. The grassy woodlands of the time expanded and were also linked to the great interior plains grasslands to the west of the region. As a result, elements of the prairie flora became established throughout the region, first by simple migration, but then also by invading disjunct openings (including glades and barrens) that were forming in the canopy of more mesic forests. [6]

During most of the climatic shifts of the last 100,000 years, most plant migration in Eastern North America occurred along a more or less north-south axis. The climate optimum was significant because it made conditions favorable for the invasion and establishment of species from the center of the continent. [6]

After the end of the optimum about 5,000 years BP, as the climate cooled and precipitation increased, species migrated so that communities were reassembled in new forms in which all of the components of the modern southern forests were in place. The boreal forests of the early Quaternary enjoyed a modest expansion. Riparian, bottomland, and wetland plant communities expanded. The grassy woodlands contracted and retracted westward. [6]

Prescribed fire in Virginia, 1995. Many eastern ridgetops were burned by American Indians. Prescribed fire GWJNF Steven Q Croy USDAFS 1995.jpg
Prescribed fire in Virginia, 1995. Many eastern ridgetops were burned by American Indians.

At about 4,000 years BP, the Archaic Indian cultures began practicing agriculture throughout the region. Technology had advanced to the point that pottery was becoming common, and the small-scale felling of trees became feasible. Concurrently, the Archaic Indians began using fire in a widespread manner in large portions of the region. Intentional burning of vegetation was taken up to mimic the effects of natural fires that tended to clear forest understories, thereby making travel easier and facilitating the growth of herbs and berry-producing plants that were important for both food and medicines. [6]

For reasons that are unclear, approximately 500 years ago, aboriginal populations declined significantly throughout Eastern North America and more broadly throughout the Americas. … Thus, by the time the first European observers were reporting the nature of the vegetation of the region, it is likely to have changed significantly since the regional peak of Indian influence. A myth has developed that prior to European culture the New World was a pristine wilderness. In fact, the vegetation conditions that the European settlers observed were changing rapidly because of aboriginal depopulation. As a result, canopy closure and forest tree density were increasing throughout the region. [6]

Recent history

Pine savanna (pine land) extended to the Atlantic plain (1779 map). Georgia Anonymous Map of 1779.gif
Pine savanna (pine land) extended to the Atlantic plain (1779 map).

The oak-hickory forest of the Northeast was primarily burned by Native Americans, resulting in oak openings, barrens, and prairies in the Northeast and the Piedmont of North Carolina. There was nearly annual burning throughout the Northeast. [7] After the death of 90% of the native population around 500 years ago, grasslands, savanna, and woodlands succeeded to closed forest. After European settlement of the region the burning frequency was 2–10 years, with many sites burned annually. [1] [6] [7] The practice was so common that a North Carolina law in the early 18th century required annual burning of pastures and rangelands every March. [1]

In the southeast, longleaf pine dominated the savanna and open-floored forests which once covered 92,000,000 acres (370,000 km2) from Virginia to Texas. These covered 36% of the region's land and 52% of the upland areas. Of this, less than 1% of the unaltered forest still stands. [8]

Savannas typically contained grasses that were 3–6 feet (1–2 m) high. [1]

The southeast also had the Black Belt prairie region, within which was the blackland prairie, a type of tallgrass prairie. [8] Much of the Black Belt region was open space. As late as the 1830s, about 11% of the Black Belt region was covered with prairies. [9]

The largest prairie area in the southern Atlantic coastal plain was in the Florida panhandle region, from the Ochlockonee River to Louisiana's Florida Parishes [8]

Woodland elimination

The English colonists harvested the longleaf pine lumber, finding many uses for it. The slow-maturing tall straight trees were particularly suitable for shipbuilding and masts, although the lumber and pitch were widely used. The keel of USS Constitution was made from a single longleaf pine log. King George II decreed that straight pines over 24 inches (610 mm) in diameter were the king's property, but the colonists protested by tarring and feathering the official surveyors. However, harvesting was rather limited until 1900. [10]

At the start of the 20th century, heavy cutover of the southern pine forest, combined with longleaf pine seedling destruction by foraging livestock, eliminated pine regeneration. [1] [10] As reflected by the 1924 federal Clarke–McNary Act, fire suppression began to be practiced. The American Forestry Association's "Dixie Crusaders" told the South that burning woods were bad. [1] [11] The paper industry encouraged growth of loblolly and slash pines. The probability of catastrophic high-intensity fire increased as dead fuels increased on the forest floor. Overgrowth shades and stunts longleaf pine seedlings, undergrowth increases, and succession creates the southern mixed hardwood forest where savanna used to be. Intentional use of fire to manage vegetation began to be accepted again after World War II, and at present about 6,000,000 acres (24,000 km2) a year are burned. [1]

Remaining examples

The ecosystem of over 98% of eastern woodland areas such as longleaf pine have declined. [12]

Remaining grassy woodland and prairie cover some of the land in the following locations:

The largest contiguous remaining pine savanna habitat is at

Flora

Wet pine savanna Grand Bay NOAA Nerr0739.jpg
Wet pine savanna

Members of the Northeast upland oak communities:

Growing in the southeast pine forest:

Exotics promoted by fire:

Fauna

The range of the American bison included eastern savanna, probably into Florida. Extermination of bison to 1889.svg
The range of the American bison included eastern savanna, probably into Florida.

Fauna which lived in the southeastern savanna include:

Living in prairie habitats:

In northeastern savanna:

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Longleaf pine</span> Species of plant (tree)

The longleaf pine is a pine species native to the Southeastern United States, found along the coastal plain from East Texas to southern Virginia, extending into northern and central Florida. In this area it is also known as "yellow pine" or "long leaf yellow pine", although it is properly just one out of a number of species termed yellow pine. It reaches a height of 30–35 m (98–115 ft) and a diameter of 0.7 m (28 in). In the past, before extensive logging, they reportedly grew to 47 m (154 ft) with a diameter of 1.2 m (47 in). The tree is a cultural symbol of the Southern United States, being the official state tree of Alabama. This particular species is one of the eight pine tree species that falls under the "Pine" designation as the state tree of North Carolina.

<i>Pinus elliottii</i> Species of conifer tree

Pinus elliottii, commonly known as slash pine, is a conifer tree native to the Southeastern United States. Slash pine is named after the "slashes" – swampy ground overgrown with trees and bushes – that constitute its habitat. Other common names include swamp pine, yellow slash pine, and southern Florida pine. Slash pine has two different varieties: P. e. var. elliottii and P. e. var. densa. Historically, slash pine has been an important economic timber for naval stores, turpentine, and resin. The wood of slash pine is known for its unusually high strength, especially for a pine. It exceeds many hardwoods and is even comparable to very dense woods such as black ironwood.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Piney Woods</span> Temperate coniferous forests ecoregion of the United States

The Piney Woods is a temperate coniferous forest terrestrial ecoregion in the Southern United States covering 54,400 square miles (141,000 km2) of East Texas, southern Arkansas, western Louisiana, and southeastern Oklahoma. These coniferous forests are dominated by several species of pine as well as hardwoods including hickory and oak. Historically the most dense part of this forest region was the Big Thicket though the lumber industry dramatically reduced the forest concentration in this area and throughout the Piney Woods during the 19th and 20th centuries. The World Wide Fund for Nature considers the Piney Woods to be one of the critically endangered ecoregions of the United States. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines most of this ecoregion as the South Central Plains.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flatwoods</span> Ecological community in the southeastern coastal plain of North America

Flatwoods, pineywoods, pine savannas and longleaf pine–wiregrass ecosystem are terms that refer to an ecological community in the southeastern coastal plain of North America. Flatwoods are an ecosystem maintained by wildfire or prescribed fire and are dominated by longleaf pine, and slash pine in the tree canopy and saw palmetto, gallberry and other flammable evergreen shrubs in the understory, along with a high diversity of herb species. It was once one of the dominant ecosystem types of southeastern North America. Although grasses and pines are characteristic of this system, the precise composition changes from west to east, that is, from Texas to Florida. In Louisiana, savannas even differ between the east and west side of the Mississippi River. The key factor maintaining this habitat type is recurring fire. Without fire, the habitat is eventually invaded by other species of woody plants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Big Thicket</span> Heavily forested area of Southeast Texas in the United States

The Big Thicket is the name given to a somewhat imprecise region of a heavily forested area of Southeast Texas in the United States. This area represents a portion of the mixed pine-hardwood forests or "Piney Woods" of the Southeast US. The National Park Service established the Big Thicket National Preserve (BTNP) within the region in 1974 and it is recognized as a biosphere reserve by UNESCO. Although the diversity of animals in the area is high for a temperate zone with over 500 vertebrates, it is the complex mosaic of ecosystems and plant diversity that is particularly remarkable. Biologists have identified at least eight, and up to eleven, ecosystems in the Big Thicket area. More than 160 species of trees and shrubs, 800 herbs and vines, and 340 types of grasses are known to occur in the Big Thicket, and estimates as high as over 1000 flowering plant species and 200 trees and shrubs have been made, plus ferns, carnivorous plants, and more. The Big Thicket has historically been the most dense forest region in Texas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sandhills (Carolina)</span> Region of the southeast United States

The Sandhills or Carolina Sandhills is a 10-35 mi wide physiographic region within the U.S. Atlantic Coastal Plain province, along the updip (inland) margin of this province in the states of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The extent of the Carolina Sandhills is shown in maps of the ecoregions of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">De Soto National Forest</span> Protected area in Mississippi, United States

De Soto National Forest, named for 16th-century Spanish conquistador Hernando de Soto, is 518,587 acres of pine forests in southern Mississippi. It is one of the most important protected areas for the biological diversity of the Gulf Coast ecoregion of North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hammock (ecology)</span> Type of ecosystem in the southeastern United States

Hammock is a term used in the southeastern United States for stands of trees, usually hardwood, that form an ecological island in a contrasting ecosystem. Hammocks grow on elevated areas, often just a few inches high, surrounded by wetlands that are too wet to support them. The term hammock is also applied to stands of hardwood trees growing on slopes between wetlands and drier uplands supporting a mixed or coniferous forest. Types of hammocks found in the United States include tropical hardwood hammocks, temperate hardwood hammocks, and maritime or coastal hammocks. Hammocks are also often classified as hydric, mesic or xeric. The types are not exclusive, but often grade into each other.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atlantic Plain</span> Physiographic division of the United States

The Atlantic Plain is one of eight distinct physiographic divisions of the contiguous United States. Using the USGS physiographic classification system, the Atlantic Plain division comprises two provinces and six sections. The Coastal Plain province is differentiated from the Continental Shelf province simply based on the portion of the land mass above and below sea level.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bachman's sparrow</span> Species of bird

Bachman's sparrow, also known as the pinewoods sparrow or oakwoods sparrow, is a small American sparrow that is endemic to the southeastern United States. This species was named in honor of Reverend John Bachman.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pre-Columbian woodlands of North America</span> Mixed woodland-grassland ecosystem

Pre-Columbian woodlands of North America, consisting of a mixed woodland-grassland ecosystem, were maintained by both natural lightning fires and by Native Americans before the significant arrival of Europeans. Although decimated by widespread epidemic disease, Native Americans in the 16th century continued using fire to clear woodlands until European colonists began colonizing the eastern seaboard. Many colonists continued the practice of burning to clear underbrush, reinforced by their similar experience in Europe, but some land reverted to forest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ozark Highlands (ecoregion)</span>

The Ozark Highlands is a Level III ecoregion designated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in four U.S. states. Most of the region is within Missouri, with a part in Arkansas and small sections in Oklahoma and Kansas. It is the largest subdivision of the region known as the Ozark Mountains, less rugged in comparison to the Boston Mountains in Arkansas, the highest part of the Ozarks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecotourism in the United States</span>

Ecotourism in the United States is commonly practiced in protected areas such as national parks and nature reserves. The principles and behaviors of ecotourism are slowly becoming more widespread in the United States; for example, hotels in some regions strive to be more sustainable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">East Central Texas forests</span> Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests ecoregion of Oklahoma and Texas, United States

The East Central Texas forests or East Central Texas Plains (33) is a small temperate broadleaf and mixed forests ecoregion almost entirely within the state of Texas, United States. The northern forests perimeter is partially within the southeast Oklahoma border.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Interior Low Plateaus</span>

The Interior Low Plateaus are a physiographic region in eastern United States. It consists of a diverse landscape that extends from north Alabama across central Tennessee and Kentucky into southern Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Its natural communities are a matrix of temperate forests, woodlands, and prairies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southeastern conifer forests</span> Temperate coniferous forests ecoregion of the United States

The Southeastern conifer forests are a temperate coniferous forest ecoregion of the southeastern United States. It is the largest conifer forest ecoregion east of the Mississippi River. It is also the southernmost instance of temperate coniferous forest within the Nearctic realm.

The Southern coastal plain oak dome and hammock is a forest type occurring in small patches in Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. These forests consist of thick stands of evergreen oaks on shallow depressions or slight hills. They are distinct from their surrounding habitats, which are often woodlands dominated by longleaf pine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Longleaf pine ecosystem</span> Temperate plant ecosystem typical of region of north America

The longleaf pine ecosystem is a temperate coniferous forest ecosystem found within the Southern United States. Spanning pine savannas, sandhills and montane forests, it includes many rare plant and animal species, and is one of the most biodiverse in North America. Once one of the largest ecosystems in North America, from Virginia south to Florida and west to Texas, it now occupies less than a quarter of the original range. Degradation of the ecosystem is partially due to excessive timber harvesting, urbanization, and fire exclusion. Although the ecosystem is heavily fragmented at present, it still carries a great diversity of plant and animal species, many of which are endemic. A range of techniques, including planting longleaf pine seedlings, introducing prescribed burning regimens, managing native ground cover, and controlling invasive species within the ecosystem, are used in attempting to preserve this threatened ecosystem.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arkansas Valley (ecoregion)</span> EPA Level III ecoregion

The Arkansas Valley is a Level III ecoregion designated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the U.S. states of Arkansas and Oklahoma. It parallels the Arkansas River between the flat plains of western Oklahoma and the Arkansas Delta, dividing the Ozarks and the Ouachita Mountains with the broad valleys created by the river's floodplain, occasionally interrupted by low hills, scattered ridges, and mountains. In Arkansas, the region is often known as the Arkansas River Valley, especially when describing the history and culture of the region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southeastern Plains (ecoregion)</span> Level III ecoregion in the United States

The North American Southeastern Plains are a Level III ecoregion designated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in ten U.S. states. The region takes a U shape starting in western Tennessee, going south through eastern Mississippi, and forming most of Alabama. On the eastern side, the plains lie between the Appalachian Mountains and the coastal plains, forming central Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina. It forms part of eastern Virginia before terminating in Maryland.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler (2000). "Wildland fire in ecosystems: effects of fire on flora". Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. pp. 56–68. Archived from the original on July 5, 2017. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
  2. ↑ Earley, Lawrence S. (2006). Looking for Longleaf: The Fall And Rise of an American Forest . UNC Press. ISBN   0-8078-5699-1.
  3. ↑ "Use of Fire by Native Americans". The Southern Forest Resource Assessment Summary Report. Southern Research Station, USDA Forest Service. Archived from the original on March 5, 2014. Retrieved July 21, 2008.
  4. ↑ Williams, Gerald W. (June 12, 2003). "REFERENCES ON THE AMERICAN INDIAN USE OF FIRE IN ECOSYSTEMS" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 9, 2003. Retrieved July 31, 2008.
  5. ↑ Loehle, C. (2007). "Predicting Pleistocene climate from vegetation in North America" (PDF). Climate of the Past. 3 (1): 109–118. Bibcode:2007CliPa...3..109L. doi: 10.5194/cp-3-109-2007 .
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Owen, Wayne (2002). "Chapter 2 (TERRA–2): The History of Native Plant Communities in the South". Southern Forest Resource Assessment Final Report. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. Retrieved July 29, 2008.
  7. 1 2 Thompson, Daniel Q.; Ralph H. Smith (1971). "The Forest Primeval in the Northeast - A Great Myth?". Proceedings Annual Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference. 10. Tallahassee, Florida: Tall Timbers Research Station: 260.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Hunter, William C.; Lori H. Peoples; Jaime A. Collazo (May 2001). "Partners in Flight Bird Conservation Plan for The South Atlantic Coastal Plain (Physiographic Area 03)" (PDF). pp. 10–12, 63–64. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 17, 2008. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
  9. ↑ Barone, John A. (September 20, 2005). "Historical Presence and Distribution of Prairies in the Black Belt of Mississippi and Alabama". Castanea. 70 (3). Southern Appalachian Botanical Society: 170–183. doi:10.2179/04-25.1. ISSN   0008-7475 . Retrieved July 20, 2008.
  10. 1 2 GOBER, JIM R. "Products of the Longleaf Pine" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 7, 2006. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
  11. ↑ Biswell, Harold; James Agee (1999). Prescribed Burning in California Wildlands Vegetation Management. University of California Press. p. 86. ISBN   0-520-21945-7.
  12. ↑ Noss, Reed F.; Edward T. LaRoe III; J. Michael Scott. "Endangered Ecosystems of the United States: A Preliminary Assessment of Loss and Degradation". Archived from the original on May 9, 2008. Retrieved July 21, 2008.
  13. ↑ "Old Cahawba Prairie | Forever Wild". www.alabamaforeverwild.com. Retrieved May 16, 2018.
  14. ↑ "Florida State Parks". www.floridastateparks.org. Retrieved May 16, 2018.
  15. ↑ "Florida State Parks". www.floridastateparks.org. Retrieved May 16, 2018.
  16. ↑ "Tallgrass prairies in Georgia are rich in diversity". myajc. Retrieved May 16, 2018.
  17. ↑ "History & Culture". fs.usda.gov. United States Forest Service. Retrieved October 10, 2022.
  18. ↑ "Soldiers Delight Natural Environment Area". dnr.maryland.gov. Retrieved May 16, 2018.
  19. ↑ "Harrell Prairie Hill Botanical Area - Mississippi Land Conservation Assistance Network". Mississippi Land Conservation Assistance Network. Retrieved May 16, 2018.
  20. ↑ "Pine Barrens, New Jersey Pinelands Protection - Pinelands Preservation Alliance - Savannas". www.pinelandsalliance.org. Retrieved May 16, 2018.
  21. ↑ "Restoration of Longleaf Pine Ecosystems". www.srs.fs.usda.gov. Retrieved May 16, 2018.
  22. 1 2 Staff, Ashley Morris StarNews. "On the Map: Holly Shelter Game Land a haven for outdoor enthusiasts". Wilmington Star News. Retrieved May 16, 2018.
  23. ↑ "Green Swamp Preserve | The Nature Conservancy". www.nature.org. Retrieved May 16, 2018.
  24. ↑ "Boiling Spring Lakes Preserve | The Nature Conservancy". www.nature.org. Archived from the original on May 17, 2018. Retrieved May 16, 2018.
  25. ↑ "Sand Hills State Forest". scfc.gov. South Carolina Forestry Commission. Retrieved October 10, 2022.
  26. ↑ "Angelina National Forest". fs.usda.gov. United States Forest Service. Retrieved October 10, 2022.
  27. ↑ "Sabine National Forest". fs.usda.gov. United States Forest Service. Retrieved October 10, 2022.
  28. ↑ "Big Woods now a state forest, wildlife area | The Tidewater News". www.tidewaternews.com. July 24, 2010. Retrieved May 16, 2018.
  29. ↑ "Piney Grove Preserve | The Nature Conservancy in Virginia". www.nature.org. Retrieved May 16, 2018.
  30. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Juras, Philip (1997). "The Presettlement Piedmont Savanna: A Model For Landscape Design and Management". Archived from the original on June 17, 2008. Retrieved July 21, 2008.
  31. 1 2 Rostlund, Erhard (1960). "The Geographic Range of the Historic Bison in the Southeast". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 50 (4). Taylor & Francis, Ltd.: 395–407. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1960.tb00357.x. JSTOR   2561275.
  32. ↑ Parker, Douglas Seabrook (1998). Using Botanical Analysis to Shape a Longleaf Restoration Project (MS thesis). North Carolina State University. p. 83. Retrieved November 16, 2022.
  33. ↑ Pringle, Laurence P (1979). Natural fire . New York: William Morrow and Company. p.  35. ISBN   0-688-32210-7.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.