Heath hens were extremely common in their habitat during colonial times; because of this, along with being a gallinaceous bird, they were hunted by settlers extensively for food. It is speculated that the Pilgrims' first Thanksgiving dinner featured heath hens and not wild turkey.[3] By the late 18th century, the heath hen had a reputation as poor man's food for being so cheap and plentiful; somewhat earlier, Thomas L. Winthrop had reported that they lived on the Boston Common (presumably when it was still used to graze cows and other agricultural activities), and that servants would sometimes bargain with a new employer to not be given heath hen for food more often than two or three days a week.[4]
A first mtDNAD-loophaplotype comparison between heath hen specimens and prairie-chickens[5] brought the unexpected result that all heath hens tested formed a group very distinct from mainland birds, being most similar genetically to greater prairie chickens from Wisconsin. A more recent study[6] of the same parameter by Johnson and Dunn verified these results, but disagreed in the placement of the heath hen respective to its relatives, suggesting a closer relationship with the lesser prairie chicken (Tympanuchus pallidicinctus) instead.
However, Johnson and Dunn caution against reading too much into these results: while the lesser prairie chicken is considered a distinct species and the apparently equally-genetically distinct heath hen would thus likewise deserve species status,[7] mtDNA haplotypes in small populations that have undergone bottlenecks are likely to show higher divergence than they would judging from taxonomic status alone, due to genetic drift.[8] Thus, given the fact that all heath hen specimens from known localities studied by Johnson and Dunn are Martha's Vineyard birds (where the carrying capacity may never have exceeded several thousand, due to the limited space and limited genetic exchange with the mainland), it is possible that the low genetic diversity and apparent distinctness of the heath hen are a result of the small number of useful specimens being predominantly from a small island population.
Sculpture memorializing the last location where Booming Ben, the last heath hen, was spotted. This sculpture is located in the Manuel F. Correllus State Forest on Martha's Vineyard. It is one of five statues as a part of Todd McGrain's Lost Bird Project.
Prairie chickens were indiscriminately introduced to the Eastern Seaboard after the heath hen was gone from the mainland, but failed to thrive. There exist a considerable number of supposed heath hen specimens in public collections today, but many (all mainland specimens and those with insufficient locality information) cannot be unequivocally assumed to be heath hens. For example, a mere seven unequivocal heath hen eggs– equivalent to a very small clutch[10] – are known to be held in public collections today. That the genusTympanuchus apparently evolved rapidly and therefore has high morphological, but low genetic, distinctness between taxa further complicates research.
Photo of a displaying male from 1900
It is also important to note that while introductions of the greater prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus) were occurring, true heath hens (Tympanuchus cupido cupido) are distinct enough in morphological features to be separated from the greater prairie chicken. Taking a generous starting date of around 1810 when introductions could have started, and taking into account that Lewis and Clark did not even return from their expedition until 1806, gives roughly a 60-year period of possible introductions. From an evolutionary biology aspect, in a 60 (or even 100) year timeframe, a subspecies like the greater prairie chicken would not have been able to evolve to the point where it would so closely resemble the native heath hen that it could not be distinguished.
A prime example of this would be in opposing the lesser prairie chicken, which differs from the greater prairie chicken in being smaller, lighter, and having less distinct barring, to the heath hen, which was smaller, darker, and had more distinct barring, meaning that the lesser prairie chicken can be readily distinguished from the greater prairie chicken both morphologically and genetically (much like the heath hen), even if it were found in an area that the greater prairie chicken inhabited.
The apparent distinctness of the species and the failure of the early introductions raises the question of whether the heath hen was uniquely (by comparison with its relatives) adapted to the more oceanic climate and more forested habitats of its former area of occurrence, and in consequence, whether a future attempt to establish a population of the western birds on Martha's Vineyard could be bound to fail, possibly even by competing for funding and other resources jeopardizing the extant but much declined populations of the prairie chickens. Clearly, more research is necessary, for example by analyzing mainland specimens to determine whether they can be assigned to a taxon from molecular and morphological characters.
Description
Male and female
Very similar to the other greater prairie chicken subspecies of the Great Plains, but slightly smaller,[11] the length of the bird was approximately 17inches (43cm) and weight was about two pounds (0.9kg). A specimen weighing three pounds was claimed by Alexander Wilson but that figure was not verified by later ornithologists.[11][12] Several key plumage characteristics separated the heath hens from their Great Plains counterparts: heath hens generally displayed a strong reddish hue in their plumage, especially in their crop area, and much thicker barring throughout the breast and sides. Their pinnae (horns) were generally pointed, and tails were a greyish brown.
Extinction
Two displaying males with a female in the background
Owing to intense hunting pressure, and possible habitat loss, the population declined rapidly. Perhaps as early as the 1840s, at any rate by 1870, all heath hens were extirpated from the mainland. There were about 300 left on the island of Martha's Vineyard, off Massachusetts, but by 1890, this number had declined to 120–200 birds, mainly due to predation by feral cats and poaching. By the late 19th century, there were about 70 left. These were protected by a hunting ban and by the establishment in 1908 of the "Heath Hen Reserve" (today the Manuel F. Correllus State Forest), and the population rapidly grew to almost 2,000: by the mid-1910s, observing the birds on their lekking grounds had become something of a tourist attraction.
The 1916 nesting season was a disastrous serious of stochastic events that ultimately led the species to its final decline. In 1916, a fire spread across approximately one-third of the island, killing about 80% of the heath hen population.[13] The following winter was harsh, and goshawks began moving into the island, further reducing the heath hens' numbers. Edward Howe Forbush noted that "fewer than 100 birds still lived" following these events.[14] The remaining population of heath hens had a significantly male biased sex-ratio, leading to further complications in the upcoming years. Captive breeding efforts were attempted, but some surviving males had undeveloped testes, either from an inadequate diet or because of captive-breeding practices.[14] The species consequently faced great difficulty in resisting population shocks, such as epidemics of disease and harsh winters.
At the beginning of 1927, only 11 males and two females remained. Despite being afforded the best protection according to contemporary science, the number had declined to a handful, all males, by the end of the year. After December 8, 1928, apparently only one male survived.[15] The endling was lovingly nicknamed "Booming Ben." He was last seen on his traditional lekking ground between West Tisbury and today's Martha's Vineyard Airport on March 11, 1932 – early in the breeding season - and thus presumably died, about 8 years old, days or only hours afterwards from unknown causes.[citation needed] Footage of Booming Ben recorded by Alfred Otto Gross in the early 1930s was digitized in 2017; it is available from the Bowdoin College special collections.[16]
Heath hens were one of the first bird species that Americans tried to save from extinction. As early as 1791, a bill "for the preservation of heath-hen and other game" was introduced in the New York State legislature. Some representatives misinterpreted the bill when it was read as an act to protect "Indians and other heathen."[17] Although the legislation was passed, it turned out to be unenforceable.
Although the effort to save the heath hen from extinction was ultimately unsuccessful, it paved the way for conservation of other species. The establishment of the reserve on the open shrubland of what was then called the Great Plain in the Vineyard may have accelerated the heath hen's extinction. Fires were a normal part of the environment, but with the attempt to suppress fires instead of enforcing ecological succession with controlled burns, open habitat quality decreased and undergrowth accumulated until a normally limited fire would have disastrous consequences, as it did in 1916.[4] Lack of awareness of the region's historical fire ecology also led the state legislature to require firebreaks when protecting the heath hen.[4]
Realizing the degradation that has affected the State Forest (and although it does hold some biodiversity, prevents it from being utilized to its full potential), reestablishment of the original shrubland/heath/woods mosaic and eventual introduction of the closely related greater prairie chicken subspecies as an "umbrella species" that serves as an indicator of good habitat quality has been discussed since the late 1990s.
Small populations can behave differently from larger populations. They are often the result of population bottlenecks from larger populations, leading to loss of heterozygosity and reduced genetic diversity and loss or fixation of alleles and shifts in allele frequencies. A small population is then more susceptible to demographic and genetic stochastic events, which can impact the long-term survival of the population. Therefore, small populations are often considered at risk of endangerment or extinction, and are often of conservation concern.
The greater prairie-chicken or pinnated grouse, sometimes called a boomer, is a large bird in the grouse family. This North American species was once abundant, but has become extremely rare and extirpated over much of its range due to habitat loss. Conservation measures are underway to ensure the sustainability of existing small populations. One of the most famous aspects of these creatures is the mating ritual called booming.
The New Zealand swan is an extinct indigenous swan from the Chatham Islands and the South Island of New Zealand. Discovered as archaeological remains in 1889, it was originally considered a separate species from the Australian black swan because of its slightly larger bones, and swans not having been introduced to New Zealand until 1864. From 1998 until 2017, it was considered to be simply a New Zealand population of Cygnus atratus, until DNA recovered from fossil bones determined that it was indeed a separate species, much larger and heavier than its Australian relative.
Moorhens—sometimes called marsh hens—are medium-sized water birds that are members of the rail family (Rallidae). Most species are placed in the genus Gallinula, Latin for "little hen". They are close relatives of coots. They are often referred to as (black) gallinules. Recently, one of the species of Gallinula was found to have enough differences to form a new genus Paragallinula with the only species being the lesser moorhen.
The sharp-tailed grouse, also known as the sharptail or fire grouse, is a medium-sized prairie grouse. One of three species in the genus Tympanuchus, the sharp-tailed grouse is found throughout Alaska, much of Northern and Western Canada, and parts of the Western and Midwestern United States. The sharp-tailed grouse is the provincial bird of the Canadian province of Saskatchewan.
Attwater's prairie-chicken is a highly endangered subspecies of the greater prairie-chicken that is native to coastal Texas and formerly Louisiana in the United States.
Frances Hamerstrom was an American writer, naturalist and ornithologist known for her work with the greater prairie chicken in Wisconsin, and for her research on birds of prey. Hamerstrom was a prolific writer, publishing over 100 professional papers and 10 books on the prairie chicken, harriers, eagles, and other wildlife topics. Some were translated into German.
The eastern Canary Islands chiffchaff or Lanzarote Island chiffchaff is an extinct subspecies of the Canary Islands chiffchaff endemic to the island of Lanzarote – and possibly also Fuerteventura – in the Canary Islands, Spain.
The Kangaroo Island emu or dwarf emu is an extinct subspecies of emu. It was restricted to Kangaroo Island, South Australia, which was known as Ile Decrés by the members of the Baudin expedition. It differed from the mainland emu mainly in its smaller size. The species became extinct by about 1827.
The lesser prairie-chicken is a species in the grouse family.
The King Island emu is an extinct subspecies of emu that was endemic to King Island, in the Bass Strait between mainland Australia and Tasmania. Its closest relative may be the also extinct Tasmanian emu, as they belonged to a single population until less than 14,000 years ago, when Tasmania and King Island were still connected. The small size of the King Island emu may be an example of insular dwarfism. The King Island emu was the smallest of all known emus and had darker plumage than the mainland emu. It was black and brown and had naked blue skin on the neck, and its chicks were striped like those on the mainland. The subspecies was distinct from the likewise small and extinct Kangaroo Island emu in a number of osteological details, including size. The behaviour of the King Island emu probably did not differ much from that of the mainland emu. The birds gathered in flocks to forage and during breeding time. They fed on berries, grass and seaweed. They ran swiftly and could defend themselves by kicking. The nest was shallow and consisted of dead leaves and moss. Seven to nine eggs were laid, which were incubated by both parents.
The Cuban macaw or Cuban red macaw is an extinct species of macaw native to the main island of Cuba and the nearby Isla de la Juventud. It became extinct in the late 19th century. Its relationship with other macaws in its genus was long uncertain, but it was thought to have been closely related to the scarlet macaw, which has some similarities in appearance. It may also have been closely related, or identical, to the hypothetical Jamaican red macaw. A 2018 DNA study found that it was the sister species of two red and two green species of extant macaws.
The Tasmanian emu is an extinct subspecies of emu. It was found in Tasmania, where it had become isolated during the Late Pleistocene. As opposed to the other insular emu taxa, the King Island emu and the Kangaroo Island emu, the population on Tasmania was sizable, meaning that there were no marked effects of small population size as in the other two isolates.
The Galápagos tortoise or Galápagos giant tortoise is a very large species of tortoise in the genus Chelonoidis. The species comprises 15 subspecies. It is the largest living species of tortoise, and can weigh up to 417 kg (919 lb). They are also the largest extant terrestrial cold-blooded animals (ectotherms).
The rufous hare-wallaby, also known as the mala, is a small macropod found in Australia. It was formerly widely distributed across the western half of the continent, but naturally occurring populations are now confined to Bernier Island and Dorre Island Islands off Western Australia.
Tympanuchus is a small genus of birds in the grouse family. They are commonly referred to as prairie-chickens.
An endling is the last known individual of a species or subspecies. Once the endling dies, the species becomes extinct. The word was coined in correspondence in the scientific journal Nature.
De-extinction is the process of generating an organism that either resembles or is an extinct species. There are several ways to carry out the process of de-extinction. Cloning is the most widely proposed method, although genome editing and selective breeding have also been considered. Similar techniques have been applied to certain endangered species, in hopes to boost their genetic diversity. The only method of the three that would provide an animal with the same genetic identity is cloning. There are benefits and drawbacks to the process of de-extinction ranging from technological advancements to ethical issues.
Alfred Otto Gross was an instructor, ornithologist, and professor of biology at Bowdoin College. He went on two Arctic expeditions to study birds in the region. He studied numerous North American bird species including the ruffed grouse, snowy owl, and goshawk but is best known for his studies of the last populations of the now-extinct heath hen.
1 2 3 Thompson, Daniel Q.; Ralph H. Smith (1971). "The Forest Primeval in the Northeast– A Great Myth?". Proceedings Annual Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference. 10: 263–4.
↑ In this case, the correct nomenclature for the greater prairie chicken would be Tympanuchus pinnatus pinnatus, Tympanuchus pinnatus attwateri for Attwater's prairie chicken, and the heath hen would be a monotypic species Tympanuchus cupido.
↑ "The bill was entitled, 'An Act for the preservation of Heath-Hen, and other game.' The honest Chairman of the Assembly— no sportsman, I suppose— read the title, 'An Act for the preservation of Heathen, and other game'!" ([Alexander Wilson], Thomas Mayo Brewer, ed. Wilson's American Ornithology: with notes by Jardine..., 1840: 257).
Cokinos, Christopher (2000): The Heath-hen In: Hope is the Thing with Feathers: A Personal Chronicle of Vanished Birds: 121–196. Tarcher. ISBN1-58542-006-9
Greenway, James C. (1967): Heath-hens and Prairie Chickens. In: Extinct and Vanishing Birds of the World, 2nd edition: 188–199. Dover Publications, New York.
Johnson, Jeff A.; Schroeder, Michael. A. & Robb, Leslie. A. (2011) Greater prairie-chicken. In: Poole, A. (editor): The Birds of North America Online Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology doi:10.2173/bna.36
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