Walnut

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Walnuts Walnuts - whole and open with halved kernel.jpg
Walnuts
Inside of a walnut in growth Inside of a walnut in growth.jpg
Inside of a walnut in growth
Three-segment walnut Three-part Walnut-8283.jpg
Three-segment walnut
Walnut shell inside its green husk Juglans regia Echte Walnussfrucht 2.JPG
Walnut shell inside its green husk
Artistic depiction of two walnuts (Adriaen Coorte, 1702) Adriaen Coorte - Two Walnuts.jpg
Artistic depiction of two walnuts (Adriaen Coorte, 1702)

A walnut is the edible seed of any tree of the genus Juglans (family Juglandaceae), particularly the Persian or English walnut, Juglans regia . They are accessory fruit because the outer covering of the fruit is technically an involucre and thus not morphologically part of the carpel; this means it cannot be a drupe but is instead a drupe-like nut.

Contents

After full ripening, the shell is discarded, and the kernel is eaten. Nuts of the eastern black walnut ( Juglans nigra ) and butternuts ( Juglans cinerea ) are less commonly consumed.

Description

Walnuts are the round, single-seed stone fruits of the walnut tree. They ripen between September and November in the northern hemisphere. The brown, wrinkly walnut shell is enclosed in a husk. [1] Shells of walnuts available in commerce usually have two segments (but three or four-segment shells can also form). During the ripening process, the husk becomes brittle and the shell hard. The shell encloses the kernel or meat, which is usually in two halves separated by a membranous partition. [1] The seed kernels – commonly available as shelled walnuts – are enclosed in a brown seed coat which contains antioxidants. The antioxidants protect the oil-rich seed from atmospheric oxygen, preventing rancidity. [2]

Walnut trees are late to grow leaves, typically not doing so until more than halfway through the spring.

Chemistry

Walnut hulls contain diverse phytochemicals, such as polyphenols, that stain hands and can cause skin irritation. Seven phenolic compounds, including ferulic acid, vanillic acid, coumaric acid, syringic acid, myricetin, and juglone, were identified in walnut husks; juglone had concentrations of 2-4% fresh weight. [3]

Walnuts also contain the ellagitannin, pedunculagin. [4] Regiolone has been isolated with juglone, betulinic acid and sitosterol from the stem bark of J. regia. [5]

Similar species

The fruits of trees in the family Juglandaceae are often confused with drupes.[ clarification needed ]

Species

The three species of walnuts most commonly grown for their seeds are the Persian (or English) walnut ( J. regia ), originating from Iran, the black walnut ( J. nigra ) – native to eastern North America – and the Japanese walnut, also known as the heartnut ( J. ailantifolia ). [6] Other species include J. californica , the California black walnut (often used as a rootstock for commercial propagation of J. regia), J. cinerea (butternuts), and J. major, the Arizona walnut. Other sources list J. californica californica as native to southern California, and Juglans californica hindsii, or just J. hindsii, as native to northern California; in at least one case, these are given as "geographic variants" instead of subspecies (Botanica).[ citation needed ]

Numerous walnut cultivars have been developed commercially, which are nearly all hybrids of the English walnut. [7]

The black walnut is of strong flavor, but due to its hard shell and poor hulling characteristics, it is not commercially cultivated in orchards.[ citation needed ]

Walnut production – 2021
CountryProduction
(millions of tonnes)
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  China 1.10
Flag of the United States (23px).png  United States 0.66
Flag of Iran.svg  Iran 0.39
Flag of Turkey.svg  Turkey 0.33
Flag of Mexico.svg  Mexico 0.14
World3.50
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations [8]

Cultivation

In 2021, world production of walnuts (in shell) was 3.5 million tonnes, with China contributing 31% of the total (table). Other major producers (in the order of decreasing harvest) were the United States, Iran, and Turkey. [8]

History

During the Byzantine era, the walnut was also known by the name "royal nut". [9] An article on walnut tree cultivation in Spain is included in Ibn al-'Awwam's 12th-century Book on Agriculture. [10] The wal element in the name is Germanic and means foreign, especially in the sense of Latin or non-Germanic. Compare, for example, Wales, Walloons, Wallachia. The wal element is present in other Germanic-language words for the same nut, such as: German Walnuss, Dutch walnoot, Danish valnød, and Swedish valnöt.

Storage

Walnuts, like other tree nuts, must be processed and stored properly. Poor storage makes walnuts susceptible to insect and fungal mold infestations; the latter produces aflatoxin – a potent carcinogen. A batch that contains mold-infested walnuts should be entirely discarded. [2]

The ideal temperature for the extended storage of walnuts is −3 to 0 °C (27 to 32 °F) with low humidity for industrial and home storage. However, such refrigeration technologies are unavailable in developing countries where walnuts are produced in large quantities; walnuts are best stored below 25 °C (77 °F) with low humidity. Temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F) and humidity levels above 70 percent can lead to rapid and high spoilage losses. Above 75 percent humidity threshold, fungal molds that release dangerous aflatoxin can form. [2] [11]

Cultivars

Uses

Culinary

Walnuts in their shells available for sale in a supermarket in the United States Walnuts in their shells available for sale.jpg
Walnuts in their shells available for sale in a supermarket in the United States

Walnut meats are available in two forms: in their shells or de-shelled. Due to processing, the meats may be whole, halved, or in smaller portions. All walnuts can be eaten on their own (raw, toasted, or pickled), or as part of a mix such as muesli, or as an ingredient of a dish: e.g. walnut soup, walnut pie, walnut coffee cake, banana cake, brownie, fudge. Walnuts are often candied or pickled. Pickled walnuts that are the whole fruit can be savory or sweet depending on the preserving solution.

Walnuts may be used as an ingredient in other foodstuffs. Walnut is an important ingredient in baklava, Circassian chicken, chicken in walnut sauce, tarator (a summer soup in Bulgarian cuisine), and poultry or meat ball stew from Iranian cuisine.

Walnuts are also popular as an ice cream topping, and walnut pieces are used as a garnish on some foods. [16]

Nocino is a liqueur made from unripe green walnuts steeped in alcohol with syrup added.

Walnut oil is available commercially and is chiefly used as a food ingredient, particularly in salad dressings. It has a low smoke point, which limits its use for frying. [17] [18]

Nutrition

Walnut, English
Whole Walnut Kernel.jpg
Walnut kernel, halves
Nutritional value per 100 grams
Energy 2,738 kJ (654 kcal)
13.71 g
Starch 0.06 g
Sugars 2.61 g
Dietary fiber 6.7 g
Fat
65.21 g
Saturated 6.126 g
Monounsaturated 8.933 g
Polyunsaturated 47.174 g
9 g
38 g
15.23 g
Vitamins Quantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
0%
1 μg
0%
12 μg
9 μg
Vitamin A 20 IU
Thiamine (B1)
30%
0.341 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
13%
0.15 mg
Niacin (B3) 1.125 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
11%
0.570 mg
Vitamin B6
41%
0.537 mg
Folate (B9)
25%
98 μg
Vitamin B12
0%
0 μg
Vitamin C
2%
1.3 mg
Vitamin E
5%
0.7 mg
Vitamin K
3%
2.7 μg
Minerals Quantity
%DV†
Calcium
10%
98 mg
Iron
22%
2.91 mg
Magnesium
45%
158 mg
Manganese
163%
3.414 mg
Phosphorus
49%
346 mg
Potassium
15%
441 mg
Sodium
0%
2 mg
Zinc
33%
3.09 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water4.07 g
Link to Full USDA Database Entry
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA FoodData Central

Walnuts without shells are 4% water, 15% protein, 65% fat, and 14% carbohydrates, including 7% dietary fiber. In a 100-gram reference serving, walnuts provide 2,740 kilojoules (654 kcal) and "rich" amounts (20% or more of the Daily Value or DV) of several dietary minerals, particularly manganese at 163% DV; along with significant amounts of B vitamins. [19]

While English walnuts are the most commonly consumed, their nutrient density and profile are generally similar to those of black walnuts. [20] [21]

Unlike most nuts, which are high in monounsaturated fatty acids, walnut oil is composed largely of polyunsaturated fatty acids (72% of total fats), particularly alpha-linolenic acid (14%) and linoleic acid (58%), although it does contain oleic acid as 13% of total fats. [20]

Health effects

Health claims

In 2004, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) provided a qualified health claim allowing products containing walnuts to state: "Supportive but not conclusive research shows that eating 1.5 ounces (43 g) per day of walnuts, as part of a low saturated fat and low cholesterol diet and not resulting in increased caloric intake, may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease." [22] At the same time, the agency refused to authorize the claim that "Diets including walnuts can reduce the risk of heart disease" [23] and in 2010, it sent a warning letter to Diamond Foods stating there is "not sufficient evidence to identify a biologically active substance in walnuts that reduces the risk of coronary heart disease." [24]

In 2011, a scientific panel for the European Food Safety Authority recommended a health claim that "Walnuts contribute to the improvement of endothelium-dependent vasodilation" at a daily intake of 30 grams (1.1 oz); it also found that a cause and effect relationship did not exist between consuming walnuts and reduction of blood LDL-cholesterol levels. [25] The recommended health claim was later authorized by the European Commission. [26]

Research

A 2020 systematic review assessing the effect of walnut supplementation on blood pressure (BP) found insufficient evidence to support walnut consumption as a BP-lowering strategy. [27]

As of 2021, the relationship between walnut consumption and cognitive health is inconclusive. [28]

Inks and dyes

Walnut husks can be used to make durable ink for writing and drawing. It is thought to have been used by artists including Leonardo da Vinci and Rembrandt. [29]

Walnut husk pigments are used as a brown dye for fabric [30] and were used in classical Rome and medieval Europe for dyeing hair. [31]

Woodworking

The fine, straight-grained wood of the black walnut is highly valued for furniture, wall paneling, automobile interiors, and gunstocks. [32]

Cleaning

The US Army once used ground walnut shells for abrasive blasting to clean aviation parts because of low cost and low abrasive qualities. However, an investigation of a fatal Boeing CH-47 Chinook helicopter crash (11 September 1982, in Mannheim, Germany) revealed that walnut shell grit had clogged an oil port, leading to the accident and the discontinuation of walnut shells as a cleaning agent. [33]

Commercially, crushed walnut shells are still used outside of aviation for low-abrasive, less-toxic cleaning and blasting applications. [34] In the oil and gas industry, deep bed filters of ground walnut shell are used for "polishing" (filtering) oily contaminates from water. [35]

Cat litter

At least two companies, LitterMaid and Naturally Fresh, make cat litter from ground walnut shells. [36] [37] Advantages cited over conventional clay litter include environmental sustainability of using what would otherwise be a waste product, superior natural biodegradability, and odor control as good or better than clay litter. [38] Disadvantages include the possibility of allergic reactions among humans and cats. [39]

Folk medicine

Walnuts have been listed as one of the 38 substances used to prepare Bach flower remedies, [40] a herbal remedy promoted in folk medicine practices for its supposed effect on health. According to Cancer Research UK, "there is no scientific evidence to prove that flower remedies can control, cure or prevent any type of disease, including cancer". [41]

In culture

Large, symmetrically shaped, and sometimes intricately carved walnut shells (mainly from J. hopeiensis ) are valued collectibles in China where they are rotated in hand as a plaything or as decoration. They are also an investment and status symbol, with some carvings having high monetary value if unique. [42] Pairs of walnuts are sometimes sold in their green husks for a form of gambling known as du qing pi. [43]

Related Research Articles

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<i>Juglans</i> Genus of trees

Walnut trees are any species of tree in the plant genus Juglans, the type genus of the family Juglandaceae, the seeds of which are referred to as walnuts. All species are deciduous trees, 10–40 metres (33–131 ft) tall, with pinnate leaves 200–900 millimetres (7.9–35.4 in), with 5–25 leaflets; the shoots have chambered pith, a character shared with the wingnuts (Pterocarya), but not the hickories (Carya) in the same family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pecan</span> Species of hickory native to the southern USA and northern Mexico

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food pyramid (nutrition)</span> Visual representation of optimal servings from basic groups

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nut (fruit)</span> In botany, type of dry indehiscent fruit

A nut is a fruit consisting of a hard or tough nutshell protecting a kernel which is usually edible. In general usage and in a culinary sense, a wide variety of dry seeds are called nuts, but in a botanical context "nut" implies that the shell does not open to release the seed (indehiscent).

<i>Corylus avellana</i> Species of tree (common hazel)

Corylus avellana, the common hazel, is a species of flowering plant in the birch family Betulaceae, native to Europe and Western Asia. It is an important component of the hedgerows that were, historically, used as property and field boundaries in lowland England. The wood was traditionally grown as coppice, with the poles cut being used for wattle-and-daub building, and agricultural fencing.

<i>Juglans nigra</i> Species of tree

Juglans nigra, the eastern American black walnut, is a species of deciduous tree in the walnut family, Juglandaceae, native to North America. It grows mostly in riparian zones, from southern Ontario, west to southeast South Dakota, south to Georgia, northern Florida and southwest to central Texas. Wild trees in the upper Ottawa Valley may be an isolated native population or may have derived from planted trees.

<i>Juglans cinerea</i> Species of tree

Juglans cinerea, commonly known as butternut or white walnut, is a species of walnut native to the eastern United States and southeast Canada.

<i>Juglans regia</i> Species of tree (walnut)

Juglans regia, the Persian walnut, English walnut, Carpathian walnut, Madeira walnut, or, especially in Great Britain, common walnut, is an Old World walnut tree species native to the region stretching from the Balkans eastward to the Himalayas and southwest China. It is widely cultivated across Europe and the Caucasus.

<i>Juglans ailantifolia</i> Species of fruit and plant

Juglans ailantifolia, the Japanese walnut, is a species of walnut native to Japan and Sakhalin. It is a deciduous tree growing to 20 m (66 ft) tall, rarely 30 m (98 ft), and 40–80 cm (16–31 in) stem diameter, with light grey bark. The leaves are pinnate, 50–90 cm (20–35 in) long, with 11–17 leaflets, each leaflet 7–16 cm (2.8–6.3 in) long and 3–5 cm (1.2–2.0 in) broad. The whole leaf is downy-pubescent, and a somewhat brighter, yellower green than many other tree leaves. The male flowers are inconspicuous yellow-green catkins produced in spring at the same time as the new leaves appear. The female flowers have pink/red pistils. The fruit is a nut, produced in bunches of 4–10 together; the nut is spherical, 3–5 cm long and broad, surrounded by a green husk before maturity in mid autumn.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fox squirrel</span> Species of mammal

The fox squirrel, also known as the eastern fox squirrel or Bryant's fox squirrel, is the largest species of tree squirrel native to North America. Despite the differences in size and coloration, it is sometimes mistaken for American red squirrels or eastern gray squirrels in areas where the species co-exist.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Juglone</span> Chemical produced by walnut trees

Juglone, also called 5-hydroxy-1,4-naphthalenedione (IUPAC) is an organic compound with the molecular formula C10H6O3. In the food industry, juglone is also known as C.I. Natural Brown 7 and C.I. 75500. It is insoluble in benzene but soluble in dioxane, from which it crystallizes as yellow needles. It is an isomer of lawsone, which is the active dye compound in the henna leaf.

<i>Juglans californica</i> Species of tree

Juglans californica, the California black walnut, also called the California walnut, or the Southern California black walnut, is a large shrub or small tree of the walnut family, Juglandaceae, endemic to the Central Valley and the Coast Range valleys from Northern to Southern California.

<i>Juglans australis</i> Species of tree

Juglans australis, the nogal criollo, is a species of plant in the Juglandaceae family. This large, fast-growing tree can grow to 20 m (66 ft) tall at elevations of 0.5—1.5 km in the Southern Andean Yungas, montane cloud forests on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Tucumán, Salta, and Jujuy provinces of Argentina and Tarija and Chuquisaca departments of Bolivia. It is threatened by habitat loss.

<i>Juglans neotropica</i> Species of plant

Juglans neotropica is a species of plant in the Juglandaceae family. It is found in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. It is threatened by habitat loss. Common names include Colombian walnut, Ecuadorian walnut, Andean walnut, nogal, cedro negro, cedro nogal, and nogal Bogotano.

<i>Juglans mandshurica</i> Species of tree

Juglans mandshurica, also known as monkey nuts, or tigernut, is a species of deciduous tree in the walnut family Juglandacea, native to the Eastern Asiatic Region. It grows to about 25 m.

<i>Macadamia tetraphylla</i> Species of tree in the family Proteaceae native to Queensland and New South Wales in Australia

Macadamia tetraphylla is a tree in the family Proteaceae, native to southern Queensland and northern New South Wales in Australia. Common names include macadamia nut, bauple nut, prickly macadamia, Queensland nut, rough-shelled bush nut and rough-shelled Queensland nut.

<i>Juglans hindsii</i> Species of tree

Juglans hindsii, commonly called the Northern California black walnut and Hinds's black walnut, is a species of walnut tree native to the western United States. It is commonly called claro walnut by the lumber industry and woodworkers, and is the subject of some confusion over its being the root stock for English walnut orchard stock.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Husk</span> Outer shell or coating of a seed

Husk in botany is the outer shell or coating of a seed. In the United States, the term husk often refers to the leafy outer covering of an ear of maize (corn) as it grows on the plant. Literally, a husk or hull includes the protective outer covering of a seed, fruit, or vegetable.

References

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  2. 1 2 3 "Walnut; Agriculture – Transport Information Service". Association for German Insurance. 2010. Archived from the original on 14 February 2015.
  3. ↑ Cosmulescu, Sina Niculina; Trandafir, Ion; Achim, Gheorghe; Botu, Mihai; Baciu, Adrian; Gruia, Marius (15 June 2010). "Phenolics of Green Husk in Mature Walnut Fruits". Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca. 38 (1): 53–56. ISSN   1842-4309. Archived from the original on 29 July 2017.
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    The French en:Orchard Book II Chapter I Local & Regional Fruits 1948
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  15. 1 2 Le Verger Francais, Tome 1 Catalogue Descriptif des Fruits Adoptes 1947
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  25. ↑ EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (8 April 2011). "Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to walnuts and maintenance of normal blood LDL-cholesterol concentrations (ID1156, 1158) and improvement of endothelium-dependent vasodilation (ID1155, 1157) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006". European Food Safety Authority. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2074 . Retrieved 11 March 2024.
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  33. ↑ "In Re Air Crash Disaster at Mannheim Germany on 9/11/82. Ursula J. Schoenborn, As Executrix of the Estate of Leonedward Schoenborn, Deceased, v. the Boeing Company. Appeal of the Boeing Company. United States Court of Appeals, Third Circuit. 769 F.2d 115". Justia. 1985. Archived from the original on 17 May 2014. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
  34. ↑ "OSHA fact sheet addresses abrasive blasting hazards" . Retrieved 20 August 2018.
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  36. ↑ Parks, Shoshi (24 October 2022). "The best natural cat litter we tested with our pets". Insider.
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  39. ↑ n.a. (26 May 2023). "What are the cons of walnut cat litter?". SCNow.
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  41. ↑ "Flower remedies". Cancer Research UK. 26 January 2015. Archived from the original on 11 September 2013. Retrieved 1 September 2013.
  42. ↑ Subler, Jason; Lee, Jane Lanhee (28 August 2012). "Status-conscious investors shell out on great walnuts of China". Reuters. Archived from the original on 14 November 2015.
  43. ↑ Hsieh, I-Yi (13 May 2016). "Asian Anthropology Nuts: Beijing folk art connoisseurship in the age of marketization". Asian Anthropology. doi:10.1080/1683478X.2016.1164354. S2CID   148515450.

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