Electric vehicle supply chain

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The electric vehicle supply chain comprises the mining and refining of raw materials and the manufacturing processes that produce batteries and other components for electric vehicles.

Contents

Batteries

Geographic distribution of critical minerals for Li-ion batteries. LiBs-Critical.png
Geographic distribution of critical minerals for Li-ion batteries.

The electric vehicle battery accounts for 30–40% of the value of the vehicle. [1] There is rapidly growing demand for its components because of growth in the electric vehicle market as well as in battery storage power stations. This is driven largely by the ongoing transition to renewable energy.

The Li-NMC type uses the critical minerals lithium, cobalt, nickel, and manganese. This imposes limits on large-scale adoption of this type. [2] These three elements are concentrated in only 12 countries, with Australia being the only country that has all three. [3]

The Lithium iron phosphate battery (LFP), which has become the leading technology in China, is more sustainable. The sodium-ion battery (Na-ion) completely avoids the need for critical minerals. [4]

Li-NMCLFPSodium-ion
global BEV market share59% [5] : 85 41% [5] <1% (high potential) [6]
lithiumXX-
manganeseX--
nickelX--
cobaltX--

Securing the supply chain for these materials is a major world economic issue. [7] It has been estimated that battery recycling can provide up to 60% of market demand for the three critical elements. [2] Recycling and advancement in battery technology are proposed strategies to reduce demand for raw materials. Recycling lithium-ion batteries in particular reduces energy consumption. [8] Supply chain issues could create bottlenecks, increase costs of EVs and slow their uptake. [1] [9] Nations set up incentives for domestic growth in the market, to further secure their stake in the supply chain. [2]

Deposits of critical minerals are concentrated in a small number of countries, mostly in the Global South. Mining these deposits presents dangers to nearby communities because of weak regulation, corruption, and environmental degradation. The mining impacts the quality of the food and water local communities depend upon, and the metals end up in their bodies. Miners also experience low pay, dangerous conditions, and violent treatment. [10] [11] Electric vehicles require more of these critical minerals than most cars, amplifying these effects. These communities face human rights violations, environmental justice issues, problems with child labour, and potentially generational legacies of contamination from mining activities. Environmental justice issues arising from the supply chain affect the entire globe, through depredation of the atmosphere from pollution byproduct. Manufacture of battery technology is largely dominated by China. However, burning less petroleum products in vehicles can reduce the environmental impact of the petroleum industry because, as of 2023, most petroleum is used in vehicles. [12]

The battery supply chain includes:

Upstream activities include mining for required raw materials, which include critical materials such as cobalt, lithium, nickel, manganese, and graphite as well as other required minerals such as copper. [3] [13]

Midstream activities include refining and smelting of raw mineral ores with heat or chemical treatment to achieve the high-purity materials required for batteries, [3] [1] as well as the manufacture of cathodes and anodes for battery cells. [13] Lower environmental impacts for refining can be achieved by decarbonized electricity generation, automated process control, exhaust gas cleaning, and recycling used electrolytes. [14]

Downstream activities include manufacturing of the batteries and end goods for the consumer. [3] The production of lithium batteries in China has nearly three times higher emissions than the US because electricity generation in China relies more on coal. [2]

End of life activities include recycling or recovery of materials when possible. [3]

Disposal of spent LIBs without recycling could be detrimental to the environment. [2] Recycling lithium-ion batteries reduces energy consumption, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and results in 51.3% natural resource savings when compared to discarding them in landfills. [8] Recycling can potentially lower the overall energy emissions of battery production as the LIB recycling industry grows larger. [2] When not recycled, the disposal of cobalt extraction involves non-sulfidic tailings, which has an impact on land use. [15] Even in the recycling process, CO2 emissions are still produced, continuing to impact the environment regardless of how LIBs are disposed. [2]

Recycling of battery minerals is limited but is expected to rise in the 2030s when there are more spent batteries. Increasing recycling would bring considerable social and environmental benefits. [16]

Countries roles in the supply chain

Geographical distribution of the global battery supply chain Geographical distribution of the global battery supply chain.png
Geographical distribution of the global battery supply chain

China dominates the electric car industry, accounting for three-quarters of global lithium-ion battery production. Most refining of lithium, cobalt, and graphite takes place in China. Japan and Korea host significant midstream cell manufacturing and downstream supply chain activities. Europe and the United States have a relatively small share of the supply chain. [1]

In 2021, 3.3 million EVs were sold in China, up 400% from 2019 and higher than the global sales in 2020. [1]

Upstream activities (mining and processing) largely take place in countries with extractivist economies such as Chile and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. [1] [18] Nickel is mined in Australia, [19] Russia, [20] New Caledonia and Indonesia. [21] [22] Cobalt si mined in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. [23]

In April 2024, the United States and the United Kingdom announced a ban on imports of aluminum, copper, and nickel from Russia. [24] China is Norilsk Nickel's largest export market since 2023. [25]

Other components

EVs have fewer parts than ICEs. On average, a motor for an electric car has about 20 moving parts, but a comparable ICE would have 200 or more. [9]

Some electric vehicles motors are permanent magnet motors that require rare-earth elements such as neodymium and dysprosium. Production of these materials is also dominated by China and poses environmental problems. An alternative motor is the AC induction motor, which does not use these minerals but requires additional copper. [9]

These components also contribute to the environmental justice issues caused by the extraction of cobalt and other mineral resources, just as batteries do. Radioactive dust and mine sewage from mining for these resources contribute to environmental impacts. [14] Another aspect of the pipeline, metal refining, contributes to the environmental impacts through production of electrolytes, electricity consumption, and used cathodes. [14] Used Cathodes amplify the toxicity of marine ecosystems by the leaching of heavy metals during the smelting process. [26] The result of cobalt presence in the soil is its accumulation in plants, and their fruits. High cobalt amounts accumulate in the rest of the food chain, reaching land and air animals. Effects of excess cobalt include lower animal weight gain and a higher birth mortality. [27]

Electric vehicles require more semiconductors than internal combustion engines (ICEs). Taiwan is the world's largest producer of semiconductors. [9]

Background

International commitments reflected in the Paris Agreement have led to efforts toward a renewable energy transition as a strategy for climate change mitigation. Green capitalism and sustainable development approaches have informed policy in many countries of the Global North, resulting in rapid growth of the electric vehicle industry, and resulting demands for raw materials. [18] Mainstream projections for electric vehicle uptake assume that there will be more cars in the future. [28]

Environmental justice issues

Supply chain risks include sustainability challenges, [29] political instability and corruption in countries with mineral deposits, [30] and human rights or environmental justice concerns. [31] [3] The supply of critical minerals is concentrated in a few countries: for example, the Democratic Republic of the Congo produced 74% of the world's cobalt in 2022. [32] Extreme weather events, geopolitical issues, international trade regulation, consolidation of supply chain companies into a few large corporations, and rapidly changing technologies all present additional challenges to building a resilient supply chain. [3] Mineral extraction in the Global South for manufacturing of batteries and vehicles consumed in the Global North may replicate historical patterns of injustice and colonialism. [33]

Mining for nickel, copper and cobalt is causing environmental damage in developing countries such as the Philippines, [34] Indonesia and the Democratic Republic of Congo. [35] [36] Nickel mining has contributed significantly to deforestation in Indonesia. [37]

However electric vehicles are better for the environment than fossil-fuelled vehicles. [38] [39] The supply chain for fossil-fuelled vehicles is mostly petroleum (for a typical car around 17 tonnes of gasoline [40] ), and can be complicated and obscure. [41] Burning less petroleum products in vehicles such as two-wheelers [42] can reduce the environmental impact of the petroleum industry because, as of 2023, most petroleum is used in vehicles. [12]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithium-ion battery</span> Rechargeable battery type

A lithium-ion or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery that uses the reversible intercalation of Li+ ions into electronically conducting solids to store energy. In comparison with other commercial rechargeable batteries, Li-ion batteries are characterized by higher specific energy, higher energy density, higher energy efficiency, a longer cycle life, and a longer calendar life. Also noteworthy is a dramatic improvement in lithium-ion battery properties after their market introduction in 1991: over the following 30 years, their volumetric energy density increased threefold while their cost dropped tenfold.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electric vehicle</span> Vehicle propelled by one or more electric motors

An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle that uses one or more electric motors for propulsion. The vehicle can be powered by a collector system, with electricity from extravehicular sources, or can be powered autonomously by a battery or by converting fuel to electricity using a generator or fuel cells. EVs include road and rail vehicles, electric boats and underwater vessels, electric aircraft and electric spacecraft.

Aluminium–air batteries produce electricity from the reaction of oxygen in the air with aluminium. They have one of the highest energy densities of all batteries, but they are not widely used because of problems with high anode cost and byproduct removal when using traditional electrolytes. This has restricted their use to mainly military applications. However, an electric vehicle with aluminium batteries has the potential for up to eight times the range of a lithium-ion battery with a significantly lower total weight.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithium iron phosphate battery</span> Type of rechargeable battery

The lithium iron phosphate battery or LFP battery is a type of lithium-ion battery using lithium iron phosphate as the cathode material, and a graphitic carbon electrode with a metallic backing as the anode. Because of their low cost, high safety, low toxicity, long cycle life and other factors, LFP batteries are finding a number of roles in vehicle use, utility-scale stationary applications, and backup power. LFP batteries are cobalt-free. As of September 2022, LFP type battery market share for EVs reached 31%, and of that, 68% were from EV makers Tesla and BYD alone. Chinese manufacturers currently hold a near monopoly of LFP battery type production. With patents having started to expire in 2022 and the increased demand for cheaper EV batteries, LFP type production is expected to rise further and surpass lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides (NMC) type batteries in 2028.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</span>

The mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo produces copper, diamonds, tantalum, tin, gold, and more than 70% of global cobalt production. Minerals and petroleum are central to the DRC's economy, making up more than 95% of the value of its exports.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battery recycling</span> Process

Battery recycling is a recycling activity that aims to reduce the number of batteries being disposed as municipal solid waste. Batteries contain a number of heavy metals and toxic chemicals and disposing of them by the same process as regular household waste has raised concerns over soil contamination and water pollution. While reducing the amount of pollutants being released through disposal through the uses of landfill and incineration, battery recycling can facilitate the release of harmful materials from batteries to both the environment and the workers recycling batteries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electric vehicle battery</span> Battery used to power the electric motors of a battery electric vehicle or hybrid electric vehicle

An electric vehicle battery is a rechargeable battery used to power the electric motors of a battery electric vehicle (BEV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battery electric vehicle</span> Type of electric vehicle

A battery electric vehicle (BEV), pure electric vehicle, only-electric vehicle, fully electric vehicle or all-electric vehicle is a type of electric vehicle (EV) that exclusively uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs, with no secondary source of propulsion. BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines (ICEs) for propulsion. They derive all power from battery packs and thus have no internal combustion engine, fuel cell, or fuel tank. BEVs include – but are not limited to – motorcycles, bicycles, scooters, skateboards, railcars, watercraft, forklifts, buses, trucks, and cars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cobalt</span> Chemical element with atomic number 27 (Co)

Cobalt is a chemical element; it has symbol Co and atomic number 27. As with nickel, cobalt is found in the Earth's crust only in a chemically combined form, save for small deposits found in alloys of natural meteoric iron. The free element, produced by reductive smelting, is a hard, lustrous, somewhat brittle, gray metal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Material criticality</span>

Material criticality is the determination of which materials that flow through an industry or economy are most important to the production process. It is a sub-category within the field of material flow analysis (MFA), which is a method to quantitatively analyze the flows of materials used for industrial production in an industry or economy. MFA is a useful tool to assess what impacts materials used in the industrial process have and how efficiently a given process uses them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health and environmental effects of battery electric cars</span>

Usage of electric cars damage people’s health and the environment less than similar sized internal combustion engine cars. While aspects of their production can induce similar, less or different environmental impacts, they produce little or no tailpipe emissions, and reduce dependence on petroleum, greenhouse gas emissions, and deaths from air pollution. Electric motors are significantly more efficient than internal combustion engines and thus, even accounting for typical power plant efficiencies and distribution losses, less energy is required to operate an electric vehicle. Manufacturing batteries for electric cars requires additional resources and energy, so they may have a larger environmental footprint in the production phase. Electric vehicles also generate different impacts in their operation and maintenance. Electric vehicles are typically heavier and could produce more tire and road dust air pollution, but their regenerative braking could reduce such particulate pollution from brakes. Electric vehicles are mechanically simpler, which reduces the use and disposal of engine oil.

Huayou Cobalt Co., Ltd primarily operates as a supplier of cobalt and its associated products, such as cobalt tetroxide, cobalt oxide, cobalt carbonate, cobalt hydroxide, cobalt oxalate, cobalt sulfate, and cobalt monoxide. The company is headquartered in the Tongxiang Economic Development Zone of Zhejiang, China.

Simon David Moores is a British businessman and entrepreneur, specializing in the lithium ion battery and electric vehicle industry.

Benchmark Mineral Intelligence also known as Benchmark Minerals, founded and owned by Simon Moores in 2014, is a London-based Price Reporting Agency (PRA) and specialist information provider for the lithium-ion battery to electric vehicle (EV) supply chain. The company had £11 million in assets as of 2022.

The lithium nickel cobalt aluminium oxides (abbreviated as Li-NCA, LNCA, or NCA) are a group of mixed metal oxides. Some of them are important due to their application in lithium ion batteries. NCAs are used as active material in the positive electrode (which is the cathode when the battery is discharged). NCAs are composed of the cations of the chemical elements lithium, nickel, cobalt and aluminium. The compounds of this class have a general formula LiNixCoyAlzO2 with x + y + z = 1. In case of the NCA comprising batteries currently available on the market, which are also used in electric cars and electric appliances, x ≈ 0.8, and the voltage of those batteries is between 3.6 V and 4.0 V, at a nominal voltage of 3.6 V or 3.7 V. A version of the oxides currently in use in 2019 is LiNi0.84Co0.12Al0.04O2.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides</span> Lithium-ion battery cathode material

Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides (abbreviated NMC, Li-NMC, LNMC, or NCM) are mixed metal oxides of lithium, nickel, manganese and cobalt with the general formula LiNixMnyCo1-x-yO2. These materials are commonly used in lithium-ion batteries for mobile devices and electric vehicles, acting as the positively charged cathode.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries</span>

Lithium batteries are batteries that use lithium as an anode. This type of battery is also referred to as a lithium-ion battery and is most commonly used for electric vehicles and electronics. The first type of lithium battery was created by the British chemist M. Stanley Whittingham in the early 1970s and used titanium and lithium as the electrodes. Applications for this battery were limited by the high prices of titanium and the unpleasant scent that the reaction produced. Today's lithium-ion battery, modeled after the Whittingham attempt by Akira Yoshino, was first developed in 1985.

China produced more than 15 billion units of lithium-ion batteries in 2019, which accounts for 73% of the world's 316 gigawatt-hours capacity. China is a significant producer of lithium batteries and electric vehicles, supported by government policies. Lithium-ion batteries produced in China are primarily exported to Hong Kong, the United States, Germany, Korea, and Vietnam. The electric vehicle industry significantly drives the demand for lithium-ion batteries due to their high energy density relative to their weight. In the decade since 2008, the production of lithium batteries has tripled.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Redwood Materials</span> American battery-recycling company

Redwood Materials, Inc. is an American company headquartered in Carson City, Nevada. The company aims to recycle lithium-ion batteries and produce battery materials for electromobility and electrical storage systems. Founded in 2017 by J. B. Straubel, Redwood Materials was reported to have a valuation of about $3.7 billion as of July 2021.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electra Battery Materials</span> Canadian multinational corporation

Electra Battery Materials Corporation is a Canadian multinational corporation engaged in mining and refining raw materials for electric batteries. Electra owns and operates the first fully permitted metallurgical refinery in North America for producing battery-grade cobalt and nickel sulfate. The company also owns the Iron Creek cobalt-copper deposit in Lemhi County, Idaho, US.

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