There are three species of orangutan. The Bornean orangutan, the most common, can be found in Kalimantan, Indonesia and Sarawak and Sabah in Malaysia. [1] The Sumatran orangutan and the Tapanuli orangutan are both only found in Sumatra, Indonesia. [1] The conservation status of all three of these species is critically endangered, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. [1]
Over the past 60 years, the population of all three species has been steeply declining. [2] The current population of orangutans cannot be accurately calculated; however, it is estimated that the number of individuals remaining is: 104,000 Bornean orangutans, 14,000 Sumatran orangutans, and 800 Tapanuli orangutans. [3] The number of Bornean orangutans has decreased by more than 60% in 60 years, and the population of the Sumatran orangutan has decreased by 80% in the last 75 years. [2] It is estimated that between 1999 and 2015, the population of Bornean orangutans has decreased by over 100,000. [2]
The primary reason for population decline is habitat loss as a result of the unsustainable practice of timber extraction for the production of palm oil in areas in which orangutans habituate, notably Indonesia and Malaysia. [2] Orangutans cannot survive without forests as they are both a home and food source, they build nests in trees for sleeping and survive off tree fruits. [4] Additionally, orangutans are killed by poaching, where often mothers are killed and infants are seized and sold on the black market as pets. [5]
There are numerous conservation sites and not-for-profit organisations that have been created in an effort to prevent further decline of the orangutan population; however, in 2016, it was predicted by experts that unless drastic changes are made to the current deforestation laws, orangutans face extinction within the next ten years. [6]
Deforestation in Sumatra and Borneo is the primary reason for the endangerment of all species of orangutans. Timber is extracted from these areas for the production of palm oil, paper, and pulp. Majority of the logging is illegal, and with the rapid expansion of the palm oil industry, extraction rates have exponentially increased over the past 40 years. [7] Deforestation is extremely harmful to orangutans because the forest is their habitat. As this deforestation continues, the orangutans will be exposed to humans more often. This is harmful because it leaves the orangutans vulnerable to poaching. [8]
Logging first began occurring in the 1970s for the production of furniture and commercial products. [5] During this time, Indonesian president Suharto introduced a transmigration program, where 18,000 poor transmigrants were sent to Kalimantan, Borneo, who turned to illegal logging to earn money. [5] Additionally, President Suharto gave out large amounts of forests in order solidify political relationships. [5]
When the production of palm oil was first introduced, the rate of deforestation grew significantly. Producers soon realised that by logging one hectare of the oil palm plant, over 5,000 kg of oil could be created, making the plant highly profitable to those who grew and extracted it. Today, palm oil makes up nearly 60% of the oils and fats trade and is the most consumed vegetable oil in the world. [9] A large volume of palm oil is used in India and China for the use of cooking oil, and use is increasing in European countries for the production of biodiesel in response to the rise of climate change. [9] In 1974/1975, the global crude palm oil output was less than 3 million tonnes, but due to a heavy escalation of demand for the product, this rate grew to 40 million tonnes in 2006/2007. [10] This figure represents an annual growth rate of 8%. [10] Indonesia and Malaysia account for 87% of palm oil output, with Indonesia producing 18.3 million tonnes and Malaysia producing 17.4 million tonnes in 2007/2008. [9] The reason for the high rate of output from these countries is because it is highly cost-efficient; production costs and wages are very low compared to other countries. Additionally, the climate in this countries is ideal for growing the palm oil plant, making growth and production rates high. [9]
By 1985, the annual rate of deforestation in Kalimantan, where majority of the orangutan population habituates, was 180,000 hectares. [5] This rate of deforestation then further increased between the late 1980s and 2000, with the amount of land being logged annually increasing by 44% between 1997 and 2000 alone. [11] In the 2000s, the rate decreased slightly; however, by 2007, the annual deforestation rate had reached 1.3 million hectares. [5] In 2006, Indonesia overtook Malaysia as the world’s largest palm oil exporter, having exported over 20.9 million tonnes of palm oil. [12] Presently, only 50% of the original forest cover remains in Borneo. It is expected that by 2020, this forest cover will reduce to 24% if production rates continue. [12] As orangutans cannot survive outside forest areas, the extremely high rate of deforestation has caused the population to decrease significantly, resulting in the conservation status of critically endangered. [1]
Deforestation is also occurring as a result of fires that wipe out large amounts of land and subsequently orangutan populations. [13] Fires are set on purpose by palm oil companies in peat swamp forests. [13] As a result of these fires, orangutans in these habitats will often die amidst the fire. If they survive, they will either be left to starve without a habitat, or flee, leaving them without a habitat and at risk of capture from residents, who will either kill them for meat, keep them as pets or sell them on the black market to wealthier counties. [13]
The illegal poaching of orangutans is the second largest factor contributing towards population decline. [14] Orangutans are viewed as easy targets, according to hunters, because of their typically large size and lack of speed. [15] Sumatran, Tapanuli and Bornean orangutans are killed at a high rate for many reasons, the most common being the trade of meat or because farmers believe they are a threat to their crops. [16] A survey conducted by experts in the field reported that orangutans were killed for both conflict and non-conflict related reasons. [17] According to the survey, 56% of people who had reported to have previously killed an orangutan did so to eat it. Out of the reasons related to conflict, the most common was killing orangutans out of fear or in an act of self defense. [17] This research article states that other reasons for the poaching of orangutans include being paid to kill, traditional medicine, being killed to take infants to sell on the black market, sport hunting, or being killed accidentally as the hunters had the intention of poaching other animals. [17] A national geographic survey revealed that “between 750 and 1,790 Bornean orangutans are killed each year in Kalimantan”, which largely outnumbers the annual birth rate. [18] The poaching of orangutans is directly related to rates of deforestation. Those who grow and maintain palm oil plantations kill orangutans at a high rate if they habituate within their crops, therefore as deforestation rates rise, poaching rates subsequently grow. [19] Orangutans often interfere with these crops, however, to look for food to eat since they often cannot find food in the forest. [20]
Over the past few decades, the rate of orangutan poaching has increased significantly due to the discovery of more efficient weapons and methods of killing, such as the use of poisons, AK-47s and explosives. [17] Poaching is predominately conducted by plantation workers or villagers who consume and sell orangutan meat, many of which believe contains medicinal benefits. [17]
Behind the illegal drug trade, the trade of wildlife is the 2nd most profitable illegal trade in the world, with a combined annual value of 10 billion dollars. Orangutans are one of the most expensive animals in this trade. Often, the poaching of orangutans is linked with the illegal pet trading, where it is highly common for poachers to kill adult females, and take the infant to sell on the black market. [21] According to a survey, hunters are paid approximately USD$80 to $200 for an infant orangutan. [21] They are then often sent to Jakarta, Indonesia to be sold to wealthy Indonesians or Chinese who keep them as pets. Additionally, some infants are sent by ship to Thailand, where they are sold on the black market for up to $55,000. [22]
The illegal trade of orangutans as pets contributes to the severe decline of population, as often mothers are killed for the sole reason of selling the infant. [5] Additionally, the orphans regularly do not survive the conditions they are kept in as pets, especially during transportation to other countries. It has been estimated that for every infant sold, between 1 and 6 adult orangutans are killed. [5]
Due to an expanding global demand for timber in the 1980s, this rate then increased; according to a satellite study, 56% or 2.9 million hectares of tropical rainforests in Kalimantan, Borneo were extracted between 1985 and 2001, with a rapid increase in deforestation rates in the late 1990s. [23] The rate of deforestation during this time directly correlates with the decrease in orangutan population, as the species cannot survive in other areas. It is estimated that since 1950, the orangutan population has declined by 60%. [24] Between 1999 and 2015, the population of Bornean orangutans decreased by 100,000 individuals. [2]
Although the current population of orangutans is not precisely known, it is estimated that currently there are about 104,000 Bornean orangutans, 14,000 Sumatran orangutans, and 800 Tapanuli orangutans remaining in the wild, and 1,000 are being held in conservation sites. [25]
It is predicted that the current rate of forest loss, poaching and illegal pet trading in Borneo will continue, therefore it is presumed that in the next 35 years the population of orangutans will continue to decline an additional 45,000 individuals. [26] By 2025, it is estimated that there will be 47,000 Bornean orangutans left in the wild. [24]
Due to the dramatic decrease of the orangutan population, a number of conservation sites and not-for-profit organisations have been developed in an effort to prevent the extinction of orangutans. There are two main strategies that have been put in place to prevent this; rehabilitation of abandoned individuals or those that were previously being held illegally, and the protection of forest areas and prevention of deforestation in orangutan habitats. [27] Through a Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis, it was discovered that neither strategy was highly effective; however, the cost of preventing deforestation is one twelfth of the cost of reintroducing individuals. It was concluded that for long term protection, it is more efficient to prevent logging than attempting to maintain current populations. [27]
There are other methods that have been put in place to conserve the current orangutan population, these include research and monitoring, land and water protection, species management, education to create awareness, international legislation, and international management and trade controls. [28] Additionally, some organisations that work to conserve the population of orangutans have put in efforts to work alongside palm oil companies and local governments to prevent further habitat loss. [29] For example in 2011 a tri-party agreement was signed by one of the world’s largest palm oil producers Wilmar International, Central Kalimantan government, and Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation (BOSF). The agreement was formed with the aim to provide long-term protection for Bornean orangutans, including monitoring palm oil plantation methods, establishing areas where orangutans can be protected, relocating abandoned individuals and providing training to plantation workers on how to manage orangutans and avoid conflict. [29] World Wild Life (WWL) is in collaboration with TRAFFIC in attempts to stop orangutan trafficking and trading by enforcing strict rules and regulations through the governments, as well as rescuing orangutans that have been trafficked and releasing them back in the wild once they have been rehabilitated in refuges. [30]
Scientists have researched and estimated that the only way of reducing the high rate of population decline is by ceasing deforestation in orangutan habitats, and putting extensive protection methods of current populations in place. However, due to the high demand of the palm oil product and lack of funding from the government, it is extremely unlikely the rapid decline and eventual extinction of orangutans can be prevented. [31]
The tropical rainforests of Sumatra, home to the Sumatran orangutan and Tapanuli orangutan, have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2004. [32]
According to the IUCN Redlist, there are many conservation actions in place that have been somewhat successful; however, there are numerous actions that are required in order to prevent the further endangerment and eventual extinction of orangutans. [28] These include more area protection, species recovery, habitat and natural process restoration, resource protection and legislation. Additionally, IUCN suggests that more research is required, surrounding areas such as taxonomy, population size, distribution and trends, threats to orangutans, and area-based management plans. [28]
Orangutans are great apes native to the rainforests of Indonesia and Malaysia. They are now found only in parts of Borneo and Sumatra, but during the Pleistocene they ranged throughout Southeast Asia and South China. Classified in the genus Pongo, orangutans were originally considered to be one species. From 1996, they were divided into two species: the Bornean orangutan and the Sumatran orangutan. A third species, the Tapanuli orangutan, was identified definitively in 2017. The orangutans are the only surviving species of the subfamily Ponginae, which diverged genetically from the other hominids between 19.3 and 15.7 million years ago.
The bay cat, also known as the Bornean bay cat, is a small wild cat endemic to the island of Borneo that appears to be relatively rare compared to sympatric wild cats, based on the paucity of historical, as well as recent records. Since 2002, it has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List because it is estimated that fewer than 2,500 mature individuals exist, and that the population declined in the past. The bay cat has been recorded as rare and seems to occur at relatively low density, even in pristine habitat.
The Sumatran elephant is one of three recognized subspecies of the Asian elephant, and native to the Indonesian island of Sumatra. In 2011, IUCN upgraded the conservation status of the Sumatran elephant from endangered to critically endangered in its Red List as the population had declined by at least 80% during the past three generations, estimated to be about 75 years. The subspecies is preeminently threatened by habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation, and poaching; over 69% of potential elephant habitat has been lost within the last 25 years. Much of the remaining forest cover is in blocks smaller than 250 km2 (97 sq mi), which are too small to contain viable elephant populations.
The Sumatran orangutan is one of the three species of orangutans. Critically endangered, and found only in the north of the Indonesian island of Sumatra, it is rarer than the Bornean orangutan but more common than the recently identified Tapanuli orangutan, also found in Sumatra. Its common name is based on two separate local words, "orang" and "hutan" ("forest"), derived from Malay, and translates as 'person of the forest'.
The Sumatran ground cuckoo is a large, terrestrial species of cuckoo. It was introduced to Western science in 1879 and was formerly considered conspecific with the Bornean ground cuckoo but was given status as a unique species in 2000. This elusive species was initially known from just eight specimens and evaded notice from 1916 until 1997, when it was rediscovered and photographed by Andjar Rafiastanto. The Sumatran ground cuckoo's diet is thought to consist of invertebrates, small mammals, and reptiles.
The Bornean orangutan is a species of orangutan endemic to the island of Borneo. Together with the Sumatran orangutan and Tapanuli orangutan, it belongs to the only genus of great apes native to Asia. It is the largest of the three species of orangutans. Like the other great apes, orangutans are highly intelligent, displaying tool use and distinct cultural patterns in the wild. Orangutans share approximately 97% of their DNA with humans. Also called mias by the local population, the Bornean orangutan is a critically endangered species, with deforestation, palm oil plantations, and hunting posing a serious threat to its continued existence.
The fauna of Indonesia is characterised by high levels of biodiversity and endemicity due to its distribution over a vast tropical archipelago. Indonesia divides into two ecological regions; western Indonesia which is more influenced by Asian fauna, and the east which is more influenced by Australasian species.
The Sunda clouded leopard is a medium-sized wild cat native to Borneo and Sumatra. It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 2015, as the total effective population probably consists of fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, with a decreasing population trend. On both Sunda Islands, it is threatened by deforestation. It was classified as a separate species, distinct from the clouded leopard in mainland Southeast Asia based on a study in 2006. Its fur is darker with a smaller cloud pattern.
The Bornean clouded leopard is a subspecies of the Sunda clouded leopard. It is native to the island of Borneo, and differs from the Batu-Sumatran clouded leopard in the shape and frequency of spots, as well as in cranio-mandibular and dental characters. In 2017, the Cat Classification Taskforce of the Cat Specialist Group recognized the validity of this subspecies.
Betung Kerihun National Park is a national park located in the Indonesian province of West Kalimantan, on the island of Borneo. The park was established in 1995, and has a total area of 8,000 km2 (3,100 sq mi) or about 5.5 percent of West Kalimantan Province area. Together with the 2,000 km2 (800 sq mi) Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary in Malaysia, it has been proposed to form a World Heritage Site named the "Transborder Rainforest Heritage of Borneo".
The Borneo Orangutan Survival (BOS) Foundation is an Indonesian non-profit non-governmental organization founded by Dr. Willie Smits in 1991 and dedicated to the conservation of the endangered Bornean orangutan and its habitat through the involvement of local people. It is audited by an external auditor company and operates under the formal agreement with the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry to conserve and rehabilitate orangutans. The BOS Foundation manages orangutan rescue, rehabilitation and re-introduction programmes in East and Central Kalimantan. With more than 400 orangutans in its care and employing more than 440 people at a 10 sites BOS Foundation is the biggest non-human primate conservation non-governmental organization worldwide. Nyaru Menteng and Samboja Lestari are the BOS Foundation sites that have received most extensive media coverage. Nyaru Menteng, founded by Lone Drøscher Nielsen, has been the subject of a number of TV series, including Orangutan Diary, Orangutan Island and the series Orangutan Jungle School, airing since 2018.
Tanjung Puting National Park is a national park in Indonesia located in the southeast part of West Kotawaringin Regency in the Indonesian province of Central Kalimantan. The nearest main town is the capital of the Regency, Pangkalan Bun. The park is famous for its orangutan conservation.
The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) was established in 2004 with the objective of promoting the growth and use of sustainable palm oil products through global standards and multistakeholder governance. The seat of the association is in Zurich, Switzerland, while the secretariat is currently based in Kuala Lumpur, with a satellite office in Jakarta. RSPO currently has 5,650 members from 94 countries.
Deforestation in Borneo has taken place on an industrial scale since the 1960s. Borneo, the third largest island in the world, divided between Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei, was once covered by dense tropical and subtropical rainforests.
Samboja Lestari is a Bornean orangutan rescue and rehabilitation centre, tropical rainforest restoration project, sun bear sanctuary, and eco-lodge located in the district of Samboja in Kutai Kartanegara Regency, East Kalimantan, Indonesia, owned and operated by the Borneo Orangutan Survival (BOS) Foundation. According to its founder, Willie Smits, Samboja Lestari uses the principles of People, Planet, Profit, attempting to provide incomes for local people using conservation. It is located about 38 kilometres from Balikpapan.
The Greater Sunda Islands are four tropical islands situated within the Indonesian Archipelago, in the Pacific Ocean. The islands, Borneo, Java, Sulawesi and Sumatra, are internationally recognised for their ecological diversity and rich culture. Together with the Lesser Sunda Islands to their southeast, they comprise the archipelago known as the Sunda Islands.
The Bornean rhinoceros, also known as the eastern Sumatran rhinoceros or eastern hairy rhinoceros, is one of three subspecies of Sumatran rhinoceros. The subspecies may be functionally extinct, with only one individual, a female named Pahu, surviving in captivity, and held in the state of Sabah. In April 2015, the Malaysian government declared the Bornean rhinoceros to be extinct in the wild in the Malaysian portion of Borneo. However, in March 2016, a young female rhino was captured in East Kalimantan, providing evidence of their continued existence. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies the subspecies as critically endangered.
The Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme (SOCP) is a collaborative project involving Indonesian NGO Yayasan Ekosistem Lestari (YEL) - as the main implementer in Indonesia, its Swiss partner the PanEco Foundation, and the Indonesian Ministry of Environment and Forestry’s Directorate General of Natural Resource and Ecosystem Conservation, under several Memoranda of Understanding (MoU) starting in 1999.
A hybrid orangutan or cocktail orangutan is usually an orangutan derived from interbreeding between any of the three Orangutan species: Bornean, Sumatran and Tapanuli, but the term "hybrid orangutan" could also refer to hybrids of the three known Bornean subspecies. As of 2015, there are approximately 134 living Bornean x Sumatran hybrid orangutans in captivity.
The Tapanuli orangutan is a species of orangutan restricted to South Tapanuli in the island of Sumatra in Indonesia. It is one of three known species of orangutan, alongside the Sumatran orangutan, found farther northwest on the island, and the Bornean orangutan. It was described as a distinct species in 2017. As of 2018, there are roughly 800 individuals of this species and it is currently on the critically endangered species list.
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