Environmental gentrification

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Environmental, ecological or green gentrification is a process in which cleaning up pollution or providing green amenities increases local property values and attracts wealthier residents to a previously polluted or disenfranchised neighbourhood. [1] [2] Green amenities include green spaces, parks, green roofs, gardens and green and energy efficient building materials. These initiatives can heal many environmental ills from industrialization and beautify urban landscapes. Additionally, greening is imperative for reaching a sustainable future. However, if accompanied by gentrification, these initiatives can have an ambiguous social impact. For example, if the low income households are displaced or forced to pay higher housing costs. [2] First coined by Sieg et al. (2004), [3] environmental gentrification is a relatively new concept, although it can be considered as a new hybrid of the older and wider topics of gentrification and environmental justice. Social implications of greening projects specifically with regards to housing affordability and displacement of vulnerable citizens. Greening in cities can be both healthy and just.

Contents

Gentrification

Gentrification is a process whereby a neighborhood is transformed in order to cater to a wealthier home buyer or investor. [4] The process often takes place in working-class neighbourhoods that are inhabited by low-income residents. Real-estate development such as luxury condominiums or the transformation of old factories into trendy lofts, attract wealthier investors. [5] [6] As the process progresses, low-income residents are pushed out or to the outskirts of the neighborhood as real-estate and rent prices are increased due to demand. Also, as middle-class residents enter the neighbourhood surrounding businesses transform to accommodate desires. Gentrification has often been promoted by local governments through policies that promote ‘'urban renewal.' [4] Generally, the process is considered to benefit the local economy and improve neighbourhoods.

Three phases of gentrification have been recognized during:

  1. 1960's-1970s - a process led by the government which hoped to reinvest capital to the inner-city.
  2. 1970s - widespread in big cities and spreading to smaller towns across North America. An example is the promotion of art communities such as Soho Manhattan, to attract residents and investors.
  3. 1990s - extensive large-scale development increased in scale and complexity through public-private partnerships.

As wealthier citizens have started to demand green amenities, cities have shifted their focus to marrying urban redevelopment with green initiatives all of which follow a similar process. Some of these initiatives can be seen through changes in various infrastructure, people changing their means of transportation to things such as biking and walking, as well as the displacement of people, all of which may lead to the gentrification of a neighborhood. [7]

Urban planning and sustainability

Sustainability is a tool that is used by governments and developers to promote green initiatives in cities. [8] Growing out of the promotion of sustainable development for developing countries, sustainability emerged as a global proposal at the 1992 United Nations Earth Summit. In theory, sustainability is achievable through a balance of three pillars - economy, environment and social equity. [9] However, the practice it still remains a challenge. [10] The social equity portion of sustainability is concerned with providing local communities ability to participate in decision-making as well as benefit from development projects. [10] Public participation aims to ensure that local concerns and needs are met. The redevelopment of brownsites, post-industrial areas, have become foundations for large-scale urban greening redevelopments. These sites are typical of past industrial landscapes - near the downtown core and waterfront and in need of environmental remediation. [11] Environmental redevelopments often promote sustainability through urban planning mechanisms such as new urbanism which promotes that planning that focus on building cities that are livable and walkable. [12] [8]

Cities and individuals are responding the ecological crisis through eco-friendly planning and actions. The United Nations estimates that approximately 54% of the world's inhabitants are living in cities. This number is expected to increase to 66% by the year 2050. [13] In many ways, the city functions like a metabolic organism, extracting, using and disposing of resources across space and time. Therefore, studying the urban environment can often reveal spatial positions of power. [14] For example, in the United States there is a negative correlation between the provision of urban green space and African-American and Hispanic populations. [15] Spaces that are provided tend to have a lack in municipal upkeep and policing. [16] Additionally, green spaces in affluent neighborhoods promote activities for wealthy citizens which help to maintain a certain social order. [17]

Gentrification and environmental justice in the United States

Redevelopment of Elbut Mill before The redevelopment of Elbut Mill - geograph.org.uk - 1828589.jpg
Redevelopment of Elbut Mill before
Redevelopment of Elbut Mill after The redevelopment of Elbut Mill - geograph.org.uk - 1828594.jpg
Redevelopment of Elbut Mill after

Environmental gentrification is a topic that intersects with environmental justice. The areas that are redeveloped with the intent of adding more environmentally friendly parks and greenspaces, are generally selected because the neglected property that can be purchased for a lower cost. [18] With the purchase of cheaper property and land, the intent to renovate and fix up these properties with the intent to eventually make a profit is clear. These properties are often in zones that are predominantly occupied by people of racial and ethnic minority, and were strategically zoned in areas more susceptible and proximal to toxic waste disposal as well as other types of contamination. [18] Despite these disproportionate effects, it does not appear to influence the actions of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in terms of determining priority for interventions. [19] As neighborhoods are cleaned up through Superfund cleanup programs, there are noticeable changes that have the tendency to follow, such as an increased number of people that move to the area, with more financial resources and higher levels of education. [19] As people with more financial resources move in, the previous residents are slowly pushed out as the costs of living become less affordable in comparison to before the development and gentrification of the area. Typically these neighborhoods are overtaken by a greater white population, resulting in the whitewashing of a neighborhood. [20] As neighborhoods gain more of a white population, there are increased instances of citizen-based policing of the youth, such as not only profiling, but also the baseless calling of law enforcement, disproportionately targeting people of color. [20] It has been seen that in larger plans to develop various areas, nonprofit organizations that focus on park development and greenspaces are relied upon, and due to their lack of specialty with the development of infrastructure, the consequences of gentrification such as the lack of affordable housing went ignored as parks were built. [21]

Urban green spaces are areas that are in an open space with the looks of a natural environment with greenery and at times water features.Green spaces do promote an aesthetically pleasing look and physical activity amongst people in the community, which promotes physical and mental well-being [22] Green gentrification is applied to green spaces based on the accessibility of these improvements. Green spaces, such as parks and fields, can be placed in an unsafe neighborhood or a neighborhood that is disproportionately wealthy area, when there are areas with little to no green areas. [23] Moreover, the lack of green spaces in low income, urban areas green gentrification due to these communities at present struggling with financial matters [22] The promotion of green areas has a positive effect on the communities, and the imbalance of greenery in wealthy versus low-income areas exhibits environmental injustice. Studies have shown green spaces in urban areas to have an effect on climate and health risks by lowering local temperature and improving air quality. [24]

Examples

Barcelona


Sant Marti District

A 15-year study (1990-2005) examined the social impacts or enhancing urban green spaces across the city of Barcelona. During the 1990s and 2000s, 18 new urban green parks were added to the city planning agenda. [25] First and foremost, as Barcelona was awarded the 1992 Olympic Games, the city prepared for the event through numerous urban developments which influenced a transformation of public spaces. [26] Previously, the city had been concerned with providing urban parks for the purpose of socializing and exercising. However, as the Olympics were swiftly approaching, urban planners and city governments took the opportunity to develop green spaces for mega-events. [27] These new types of spaces prioritize the aesthetic features of urban green space in an effort to attract tourists and offer memorable landscapes. [28] The legacy of mega-event urban parks can be observed in three notable parks around the city - Parc del Port Olimpic, Parc del Poblenou and Parc de Diagnol Mar. All three of these parks have shifted neighborhood demographics towards greater affluence. [27]

The city of Barcelona released its plan for sustainability titled Barcelona Green Infrastructure and Biodiversity Plan 2020. This document does not contain plans for housing affordability or social impacts that are a result from large-scale development. [10] Diagonal Mar project provides an example of the green initiatives being coupled with large-scale urban redevelopment on a previous brownfield site. Historically, the area was an industry hub as it is located near the Mediterranean Sea. The Diagonal Mar project includes luxury condominiums, three hotels, three office buildings, a shopping mall nested within an urban green space. The project has been criticized for not considering local input into planning as lacking spaces for social interactions for citizens. [2] [28]

Studies suggest that green gentrification has occurred in correspondence with park development in the Sant Marti district. Using neighbourhood measurements of wealth, the authors suggest that demographic shifts of the neighbourhood have taken place at an alarming rate 1990–2005. Moreover, areas surrounding parks have experienced clear indicators of these changes as there has been an increase in: residents with a bachelor's degree, residents from the global North, household income or home sale and an overall decrease in the population of residents 65 and older living alone. [27]

Percentage of Population Change within 300m of Parks Compared to District Average of Sant Marti [27]
Time Period of DataPark Name (Year Built)Bachelor's DegreeDistrict Avg.Over 65 Years of AgeDistrict AverageGlobal North ImmigrantDistrict AverageFamily IncomeDistrict Average
(1991-2006)Parc del Port Olimpic (1992)27.92%7.59%-1.52%1.82%7.4%3.22%19.21%2.8%
(1991-2006)Parc del Poblenou (1992)25.98%7.59%-2.97%1.82%6.9%3.22%14.42%2.8%
(2004-2006)Parc de Diagnol Mar (2002)4.69%1.37%-0.18%0.06%1.71%2.19%4.2%2.1%

New York City

The High Line

The High Line, is a 1.45-mile-long (2.33 km) an elevated public park that was constructed on a historic freight line along the west side of Manhattan in New York City. [29] Previous to its redevelopment, the High Line represented the deterioration of New York's industry, the neighbourhood of alongside the High Line, Chelsea, had frequent delinquency. Since the 1980s the city government has attempted to tear down this eyesore. In response, activists ventured to save this icon of history and instead promoted the idea that the High Line could be returned to the community as a provision of public good. [30] As the High Line was acquired by the CSX Transportation Inc. in 1999, community board meetings provided an avenue for alternative uses to be proposed. [31] At around the same time, Joshua David and Robert Hammond formed a non-profit they called Friends of the High Line of which their main goal was to acquire public and private funds to save the bridge from demolition. Notable celebrities - Edward Norton, Martha Stewart and Kevin Bacon provided financial support for the project. [32] Friends of the High Line presented a redevelopment strategy to the Bloomberg administration, promoting that the bridge could be converted into a public park. Friends Of the High Line suggested that this would provide economic benefits to the surrounding neighborhood and generate substantial tax revenues. [33] The Bloomberg administration accepted the initiative. Mayor Bloomberg provided a statement of support by stating, “The Board’s ruling is a great win for all New Yorkers. It allows us to implement our plans to preserve this valuable historic resource, create a much needed public open space and strengthen our city’s economy." [34]

Evidence that this project has ignited gentrification can be observed through the soaring real estate prices as well as types of activities that are being attracted to the High Line and its surrounding areas. In just two years, there has been a production of $2 Billion real-estate construction which has contributed an additional $900 million in tax revenues. [33] Additionally, the relocation of Whitney Museum of American Art nearby sheds light on the popularity of the park.

The High Line, although presented as a public park, privileges certain users and activities. [31] Friends of the High Line allow for only certain types of vendors as well as provides private security guards. Visitors of the High Line can enjoy artisanal foods, micro-brewed beer and browse up-scaled art merchant booths. The promotion of economic growth and certain types of consumption coupled with surveillance results in the neoliberalization of this public spaces. [31] Which is to say, The High Line, although a famous icon for the city, may fall short of providing open spaces and benefits for all citizens to use and enjoy. [31] Instead it more closely resembles a place of spatial 'privileged' [35] where claims to public space are dominated by upper-class citizens.

Concurrently in 2007, the Bloomberg administration released the PlaNYC 2030: A Greater, Greener New York which aimed to combat climate change through expanding sustainability measured with 132 initiatives. One goal highlights the social pillar of sustainability by having a goal that every citizen in the city will have a green space within a 10-minute walking distance from their home.

Vancouver

False Creek

The traditional urban layout of Vancouver was reminiscent of a small-town. Grid-iron patterned streets were lined with single-family dwellings, businesses could be found along main streets and industry was concentrated along shorelines and inlets. The 1960s ushered in a shift towards higher densities through high rise residential buildings in the downtown core. In the 1980s, redevelopment of brownsites (former industrial areas) for condominium development in the False Creek region was a result of it being the site for Expo 1986. [36] Previously, this area was the heartland of industry and had begun to deteriorate as industry shifted. [36] After the Expo the site was acquired by Hong Kong billionaire Li Ka-Shing for $320 million and a numerous residential luxury developments followed suite. [37] These developments promoted a tone of sustainability that were supported through planning documents such as Livable Region Strategic Planning (1996). Urban planning strategies such as Smart Growth stressed environmental goals could be achieved through the provision of walkable and mixed-use urban areas which would reduce urban sprawl. [38] Critiques of Smart Growth highlight the often ignored equity aspects of the strategy as they often ignore low-income residents. [39] Housing affordability became an issue during 2001-2007 as the price for a typical two-bedroom in the west end of Vancouver shifted from $260,000 to $650,000. [40] In 2008, the city council accepted EcoDensity as a solution to housing affordability which promoted further densification of downtown and surrounding neighbourhoods. EcoDensity is the solution to housing affordability rather than provision of social housing. A number of towers were constructed in the downtown Eastside displaced approximately 4,000 low-income residents from June 2007-January 2008. [40] Critiques of EcoDensity, suggest that the strategy does not account for enough citizen input in planning measures. [41]

Vancouver has become one of the most popular cities in the world to live as it offers breathtaking mountain views and access to numerous beaches. As Vancouver was awarded the 2010 Winter Olympics, which led to the development of “Millenium Water” along the South Eastern portion of False Creek which became the site for the Olympic Athlete Village. This project boasted European-styled walkways, green roofs and sustainability characteristics. [42] No low-income housing was provided with this project and one-bedroom condos starting price was $500,000. [42] In an effort to reduce ecological impacts, the project promoted a habitat restoration project whereby leftover dirt was used to create an island for bird nesting. [8] In 2006, water squatters, people living in boats in False Creek waters, were evicted in an effort to clean up the area. [8] The False Creek redevelopment was advertised as a park-like nature for new residents and tourists and promoted as a space for leisure. [43] Scholars suggest that there is a disconnect between the promotion of environmental discourses and issues of equity which results in a class conflict over space in the city. [40] [8] Although Vancouver is a highly desirable place to live, the promotion of sustainability through policies ignores provision of much needed affordable housing allocations.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gentrification</span> Urban socioeconomic process

Gentrification is the process of changing the character of a neighborhood through the influx of more affluent residents and businesses. It is a common and controversial topic in urban politics and planning. Gentrification often increases the economic value of a neighborhood, but the resulting demographic displacement may itself become a major social issue. Gentrification often sees a shift in a neighborhood's racial or ethnic composition and average household income as housing and businesses become more expensive and resources that had not been previously accessible are extended and improved.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Smart growth</span> Urban planning philosophy

Smart growth is an urban planning and transportation theory that concentrates growth in compact walkable urban centers to avoid sprawl. It also advocates compact, transit-oriented, walkable, bicycle-friendly land use, including neighborhood schools, complete streets, and mixed-use development with a range of housing choices. The term "smart growth" is particularly used in North America. In Europe and particularly the UK, the terms "compact city", "urban densification" or "urban intensification" have often been used to describe similar concepts, which have influenced government planning policies in the UK, the Netherlands and several other European countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban renewal</span> Land redevelopment in cities

Urban renewal is a program of land redevelopment often used to address urban decay in cities. Urban renewal involves the clearing out of blighted areas in inner cities to clear out slums and create opportunities for higher class housing, businesses, and other developments. In the United States the term technically refers only to a federal program in the middle-to-late 20th Century, but colloquially is sometimes used to refer to any large-scale change in urban development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pocket park</span> Small park accessible to the public

A pocket park is a small park accessible to the general public. While the locations, elements, and uses of pocket parks vary considerably, the common defining characteristic of a pocket park is its small size. Typically, a pocket park occupies one to three municipal lots and is smaller than 0.5 hectares in size.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saint-Henri, Montreal</span> Neighbourhood in Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Saint-Henri is a neighbourhood in southwestern Montreal, Quebec, Canada, in the borough of Le Sud-Ouest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Infill</span> Rededication of land in an urban environment to new construction

In urban planning, infill, or in-fill, is the rededication of land in an urban environment, usually open-space, to new construction. Infill also applies, within an urban polity, to construction on any undeveloped land that is not on the urban margin. The slightly broader term "land recycling" is sometimes used instead. Infill has been promoted as an economical use of existing infrastructure and a remedy for urban sprawl. Its detractors view it as overloading urban services, including increased traffic congestion and pollution, and decreasing urban green-space. Many also detract it for social and historical reasons, partly due to its unproven effects and its similarity with gentrification.

The term "sustainable communities" has various definitions, but in essence refers to communities planned, built, or modified to promote sustainable living. Sustainable communities tend to focus on environmental and economic sustainability, urban infrastructure, social equity, and municipal government. The term is sometimes used synonymously with "green cities," "eco-communities," "livable cities" and "sustainable cities."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Livability</span>

Livability or liveability is the degree to which a place is good for living. Livability refers to the concerns that are related to the long-term wellbeing of individuals and communities. It encompasses factors like neighborhood amenities, including parks, open space, walkways, grocery shops and restaurants as well as environmental quality, safety and health. It also incorporates things like cost and friendliness. These features contribute to the pleasantness and accessibility of communities. Additionally, livability considers the availability and quality of public transport, educational institutions and healthcare facilities. It also considers the overall cultural and social atmosphere of a place, including the presence of diverse recreational activities and community engagement opportunities. All these factors combined create an environment that enhances the overall quality of life for residents.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mixed-use development</span> Type of urban development strategy

Mixed use is a type of urban development, urban design, urban planning and/or a zoning classification that blends multiple uses, such as residential, commercial, cultural, institutional, or entertainment, into one space, where those functions are to some degree physically and functionally integrated, and that provides pedestrian connections. Mixed-use development may be applied to a single building, a block or neighborhood, or in zoning policy across an entire city or other administrative unit. These projects may be completed by a private developer, (quasi-) governmental agency, or a combination thereof. A mixed-use development may be a new construction, reuse of an existing building or brownfield site, or a combination.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable city</span> City designed with consideration for social, economic, environmental impact

A sustainable city, eco-city, or green city is a city designed with consideration for social, economic, environmental impact, and resilient habitat for existing populations, without compromising the ability of future generations to experience the same. The UN Sustainable Development Goal 11 defines sustainable cities as those that are dedicated to achieving green sustainability, social sustainability and economic sustainability. They are committed to doing so by enabling opportunities for all through a design focused on inclusivity as well as maintaining a sustainable economic growth. The focus will also includes minimizing required inputs of energy, water, and food, and drastically reducing waste, output of heat, air pollution – CO2, methane, and water pollution. Richard Register, a visual artist, first coined the term ecocity in his 1987 book Ecocity Berkeley: Building Cities for a Healthy Future, where he offers innovative city planning solutions that would work anywhere. Other leading figures who envisioned sustainable cities are architect Paul F Downton, who later founded the company Ecopolis Pty Ltd, as well as authors Timothy Beatley and Steffen Lehmann, who have written extensively on the subject. The field of industrial ecology is sometimes used in planning these cities.

The EcoDensity Initiative was officially launched in 2006 in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, in conjunction with the World Urban Forum. The initiative was a response to deconcentration of urban land use due to urban sprawl. The initiative used density, design and land use as catalysts towards livability, affordability and environmental sustainability. Some of the program's objectives were to reduce car reliance, deliver more efficient urban land use, improve green energy systems and build a resilient and adaptable community. In high-density urban areas, utilizing the existing infrastructure and transit and community amenities tends to lead towards a more sustainable and livable state. Accordingly, EcoDensity was designed to strategically enhance densification with the primary aim of efficiently structured neighbourhoods, denser urban-patterns and increased affordable housing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban green space</span> Green area planned in an urban location

In land-use planning, urban green space is open-space areas reserved for parks and other "green spaces", including plant life, water features - also referred to as blue spaces - and other kinds of natural environment. Most urban open spaces are green spaces, but occasionally include other kinds of open areas. The landscape of urban open spaces can range from playing fields to highly maintained environments to relatively natural landscapes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Land recycling</span> Reuse of abandoned buildings or sites

Land recycling is the reuse of abandoned, vacant, or underused properties for redevelopment or repurposing.

The sustainable urban neighbourhood (SUN) is an urban design model which is part of 21st-century urban reform theory, moving away from the typical suburban development of the UK and US towards more continental city styles. It emerged in the UK in the 1990s, specifically from pioneering work by URBED, an urban regeneration consultancy and research centre in Manchester.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gentrification of Atlanta</span> Gentrification of Atlantas inner-city neighborhoods

Gentrification of Atlanta's inner-city neighborhoods began in the 1970s, and it has continued, at varying levels of intensity, into the present. Many factors have contributed to the city's gentrification. A major increase in gentrification that occurred in the last years of the 20th century has been attributed to the 1996 Summer Olympics. However, during the 2000s, Atlanta underwent a profound transformation demographically, physically, and culturally. Suburbanization, rising prices, a booming economy, and new migrants decreased the city’s black percentage from a high of 67% in 1990 to 54% in 2010. From 2000 to 2010, Atlanta gained 22,763 white residents, 5,142 Asian residents, and 3,095 Hispanic residents, while the city’s black population decreased by 31,678. Much of the city’s demographic change during the decade was driven by young, college-educated professionals: from 2000 to 2009, the three-mile radius surrounding Downtown Atlanta gained 9,722 residents aged 25 to 34 holding at least a four-year degree, an increase of 61%. Between the mid-1990s and 2010, stimulated by funding from the HOPE VI program, Atlanta demolished nearly all of its public housing, a total of 17,000 units and about 10% of all housing units in the city. In 2005, the $2.8 billion BeltLine project was adopted, with the stated goals of converting a disused 22-mile freight railroad loop that surrounds the central city into an art-filled multi-use trail and increasing the city’s park space by 40%. Lastly, Atlanta’s cultural offerings expanded during the 2000s: the High Museum of Art doubled in size; the Alliance Theatre won a Tony Award; and numerous art galleries were established on the once-industrial Westside.

The gentrification of Vancouver, Canada, has been the subject of debate between those who wish to promote gentrification and those who do not.

Innovation districts are urban geographies of innovation where R&D strong institutions, companies, and other private actors develop integrated strategies and solutions to develop thriving innovation ecosystems–areas that attract entrepreneurs, startups, and business incubators. Unlike science parks, innovation districts are physically compact, leverage density and high levels of accessibility, and provide a “mash up” of activities including housing, office, and neighborhood-serving amenities. Districts signify the collapse back of innovation into cities and is increasingly used as a way to revitalize the economies of cities and their broader regions. As of 2019, there are more than 100 districts worldwide.

Gentrification, the process of altering the demographic composition of a neighborhood usually by decreasing the percentage of low-income minority residents and increasing the percentage of typically white, higher-income residents, has been an issue between the residents of minority neighborhoods in Chicago who believe the influx of new residents destabilizes their communities, and the gentrifiers who see it as a process that economically improves a neighborhood. Researchers have debated the significance of its effects on the neighborhoods and whether or not it leads to the displacement of residents. There are some researchers who claim that the loss of affordable housing mainly impacts the poorer minority residents and causes them to have to move out of their neighborhoods which destabilizes their cultural communities. However, critics say that since gentrification often excludes highly black neighborhoods, those residents are prevented from benefiting from any of the positive effects such as redevelopment and neighborhood investment. Factors associated with and used to measure gentrification in Chicago are changes in the number of residents with bachelor's degrees, median household income, racial composition, visual observations, and the presence of coffee shops. Historically, the emergence of urban black and Latino neighborhoods in Chicago during the 1950s through the 1970s were made possible because of the waves of white residents moving out into more suburban neighborhoods. There have been phases of gentrification in Chicago of various neighborhoods, some of which were in 1990s and in 2007–2009. Gentrification debates in Chicago have been mostly focused around the gentrification of Chicago's historically Latino or black neighborhoods. Generally, these neighborhoods are located near the central urban downtown areas and along the east side of the city.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gentrification of Mexico City</span>

Mexico City has massively been expanding its urban fabric and population density, becoming the fifth largest city in the world. A combination of neoliberal policies, complex geographic location, socio-economic disparities and inefficient strategies, have influenced the process of gentrification in the city. The combination of numerous megaprojects and inefficient city-planning strategies have led to dysfunctions in circulation, community allocation and equal access to resources. In consequence, middle and low-income communities have been directly or indirectly alienated and challenged to adapt to a complex and evolving urban environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban Ecotourism</span>

Urban ecotourism is a relatively new form of ecotourism that takes place in urban settings. The concept first appeared in 1996 when the Blackstone Corporation defined it as “[...] travel and exploration within and around an urban area that offers visitors enjoyment and appreciation of the city's natural areas and cultural resources, [...] promotes the city's long-term ecological health [...] promotes sustainable local economic and community development and vitality; [...] is accessible and equitable to all”. Urban ecotourism shares the same goals for sustainability and community development as traditional ecotourism, but applies them to large cities, industrial wastelands, and post-productivist agriculture sites, as opposed to more nature-based venues for traditional ecotourism. Destinations in these locations may take the form of linear parks, farm-to-table restaurants, rewilding parks, biking and hiking trails, sustainable hotels, and rooftop gardens.

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  23. ↑ Rigolon, Alessandro; Németh, Jeremy (2020). "Green gentrification or 'just green enough': Do park location, size and function affect whether a place gentrifies or not?". Urban Studies. 57 (2): 402–420. doi:10.1177/0042098019849380. ISSN   0042-0980. S2CID   198731566.
  24. ↑ Kong, Fanhua; Sun, Changfeng; Liu, Fengfeng; Yin, Haiwei; Jiang, Fei; Pu, Yingxia; Cavan, Gina; Skelhorn, Cynthia; Middel, Ariane; Dronova, Iryna (2016). "Energy saving potential of fragmented green spaces due to their temperature regulating ecosystem services in the summer". Applied Energy. 183: 1428–1440. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.09.070.
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  26. ↑ Anguelovski, Isabelle (2014). "Community Reconstruction, Place Remaking, and Environmental Justice in the City". Neighborhood as a refuge: community reconstruction, place remaking, and environmental justice in the city. MIT Press. ISBN   9780262525695. JSTOR   j.ctt9qf73z.
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  29. ↑ Green, F (September 21, 2014). "New High Line section opens, extending the park to 34th St". Daily News. Archived from the original on September 21, 2014. Retrieved February 23, 2018.
  30. ↑ David, Joshua; Hammond, Robert (2011). High Line: The inside story of New York city's park in the sky. FSG Originals.
  31. 1 2 3 4 Loughran, Kevin (2014). "Parks for profit: The high line, growth machines, and uneven development of urban public spaces". City & Community. 13 (1): 49–68. doi:10.1111/cico.12050. S2CID   153523725.
  32. ↑ Demonchaux, Thomas (May 8, 2005). "How everyone jumped aboard a railroad to nowhere" . Retrieved February 23, 2018.
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  34. ↑ Friends of the High Line. "Mayor authorization for High Line project [press release]".
  35. ↑ Kimmel, Michael (2003). PrivilegeL A Reader. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
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  38. ↑ Krueger, Rob (2005). "Sustainability schizophrenia or "actually existing sustainabilities? toward a broader understanding of politics and promises of local sustainability in the US". Geoforum: 410–417. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2004.07.005.
  39. ↑ Pozdena, Randal J. (2002). "Smart growth and its effects on housing markets: the new segregation". National Center for Public Policy Research.
  40. 1 2 3 Lee, Marc (2008). "Affordable EcoDensity - Making affordable housing a core principle of Vancouver's EcoDensity charter". The Canadian Center for Policy Research.
  41. ↑ Robinson, Pamela (2009). New growth-management experiments in Canada. Planning for climate change: strategies for mitigation and adaptation for spatial planners.
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  43. ↑ Braun, Bruce (2002). The intemperate rainforest: nature, culture and power on Canada's west coast. U of Minnesota Press.
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