July Monarchy and Troubles
European monarchies recognized the July Monarchy as a bulwark against republicanism and the spread of revolutionary ideas. Their support was contingent on France maintaining internal stability and not exporting revolution. However, disturbances in Belgium, Poland, and Italy soon challenged the new regime.
Belgium
Occupied by French revolutionary armies in 1794 and annexed in 1795, the Départements réunis , or Belgian provinces, were separated from France in 1814. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 united them with the former United Provinces to form the Kingdom of the Netherlands under the House of Nassau. [12] The UK financed fortresses along the French border to prevent French expansion.
Belgian Revolution
Dissatisfaction with William I of the Netherlands's rule led to unrest in Belgium by the late 1820s. On 25 August 1830, Brussels rose in rebellion, and Belgian militias halted Dutch troops on 27 September, pushing them back to the former border of the Austrian Netherlands. On 4 October, Belgium proclaimed independence, and a provisional government was formed, including Catholics Félix de Mérode and Emmanuel d'Hoogvorst and liberals Alexandre Gendebien and Charles Rogier.
In France, nationalist and revanchist factions saw the Belgian uprising as an opportunity to reclaim what was considered a lost French province. They advocated for military intervention, supported by liberal Catholics, patriots like Armand Carrel, republicans like Godefroy Cavaignac, Bonapartists like General Lamarque, and the petty bourgeoisie aligned with the "movement party" of Laffitte and Thiers.
However, such intervention risked provoking Prussian support for the Dutch king, who was the brother-in-law of Frederick William III. Prussia, having acquired Rhine territories in 1815, feared that French intervention in Belgium could lead to further territorial claims.
Independent Belgium
Louis-Philippe, following the policy of Louis XV in 1748, rejected the idea of reclaiming Belgium, as it would be unacceptable to the United Kingdom, which opposed French control over the Scheldt estuary. By reassuring the UK, Louis-Philippe sought support for a neutral Belgian state under European guarantee. [13]
The Netherlands, Louis-Philippe explained to Guizot, have always been a source of conflict in Europe: no great power can tolerate their control by another. Let them be an independent and neutral state by general consent; this state will become the keystone of European order.
This approach also aimed to dismantle the fortified "barrier" established by the UK along the Belgian border.
The King of the French first informed Prussia and Russia that France would not intervene in Belgium but would not tolerate intervention by other powers. On 31 August, Foreign Minister Molé conveyed this to the Prussian ambassador, and the king told the Russian ambassador, Pozzo di Borgo: "If the Prussians enter Belgium, it is war, for we will not tolerate it." [13] This introduced the "principle of non-intervention." Talleyrand then proposed to the UK that France renounce Belgium in exchange for its neutrality. The British government agreed and suggested discussing the Belgian question at the conference of the five powers (UK, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and France) in London, originally convened for Greek affairs.
The Belgian provisional government convened a National Congress, which decided in late November 1830 that Belgium would be a constitutional monarchy and excluded members of the House of Nassau from the throne. However, the London powers considered installing the Prince of Orange, son of the King of the Netherlands, to minimize disruption to the 1815 treaties.
The Tory government of Wellington, committed to the 1815 treaties, was replaced on 22 November by a Whig government under Lord Grey, with Lord Palmerston as Foreign Secretary, who was more flexible. Additionally, the Russian army was occupied with the Polish uprising that began on 29 November, preventing support for William I. Palmerston and Talleyrand then directed the London conference, which imposed an armistice on the Dutch and Belgians, recognized Belgium's independence (20 December), and declared Belgium a perpetually neutral state under the powers' guarantee. However, the conference awarded the King of the Netherlands control over Luxembourg and Limburg (20 January 1831), which the Belgians contested, leading to further conflict.
Starting in late December 1830, the Belgians sought a king. Louis-Philippe noted to Marshal Maison on 11 November that the Belgian National Congress resembled the 1790 assembly under Vandernoot and Van Enpen, being largely aristocratic and clerical. [14] This made it unlikely for a Protestant prince to be elected.
Louis-Philippe also stated that neither a French nor an Austrian prince could become King of the Belgians: "It is believed that the Belgians would be inclined to ask for one of my sons, but this idea must be dismissed, and it must not even be discussed, since in the current state of Europe, this discussion would be dangerous and would present no chance of success. The same can be said of all the archdukes of Austria." [15]
Potential candidates were limited:
- Count Félix de Mérode, a member of the Belgian provisional government, was a Catholic married to a Frenchwoman related to La Fayette. Despite his noble lineage, he declined to run, citing his non-royal status, but could serve as regent or hereditary grand duke.
- Auguste de Beauharnais (1810), Duke of Leuchtenberg, son of Eugène de Beauharnais and Princess Augusta of Bavaria, was supported by French Bonapartists but opposed by Louis-Philippe, who distrusted the "Beauharnais" connection to Napoleon I.
- Charles Ferdinand of the Two Sicilies (1811), Prince of Capua, brother of King Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies and nephew of Queen Maria Amalia.
- Prince Otto of Bavaria (1815), second son of King Ludwig I of Bavaria, was the UK's candidate.
- Prince John of Saxony (1801), nephew of King Anthony of Saxony.
- Ferdinand of Savoy (1822), Duke of Genoa, second son of the Prince of Carignano, heir to Charles Felix of Sardinia.
- The Belgian National Congress showed sympathy for the Duke of Leuchtenberg. In January 1831, Louis-Philippe indicated that he would not recognize Leuchtenberg as king and refused to consider his son, the Duke of Nemours, for the throne, but supported Otto of Bavaria, offering a marriage alliance with one of his daughters. Within the Congress, factions supported Leuchtenberg, Nemours, or the Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen. On 3 February, Nemours was elected king with 97 votes out of 192.
Talleyrand negotiated with the UK to ensure that France would decline the Belgian throne for Nemours if the powers agreed not to recognize Leuchtenberg. On 17 February 1831, Louis-Philippe informed the Belgian delegation that he could not accept their offer due to his commitment to European peace and lack of dynastic ambition. The Belgians then appointed Surlet de Chokier as regent and resumed their search for a king.
The candidacies of John of Saxony, Otto of Bavaria, and Charles Ferdinand of the Two Sicilies were reconsidered. Louis-Philippe officially supported the latter, a nephew of Queen Maria Amalia, but his chances were slim due to his ties to the reactionary House of Bourbon of the Two Sicilies.
The UK proposed Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, widower of Princess Charlotte and uncle of Queen Victoria. Despite personal ties with Leopold, Louis-Philippe was cautious about this candidacy, which was backed by the UK and the Holy Alliance. Talleyrand, however, supported it and envisioned a marriage between Leopold and a princess of Orléans.
On 4 June 1831, the Belgian National Congress elected Leopold with 152 votes out of 196. He accepted the crown on 9 July and was enthroned in Brussels on 21 July.
Dutch military intervention
Leopold conditioned his acceptance on the National Congress recognizing the "Eighteen Articles" from the London Conference, which favored Belgian claims on Limburg and Luxembourg. The King of the Netherlands, William I, rejected the Eighteen Articles and invaded Belgium on 2 August 1831.
Leopold immediately requested aid from the UK and France. Casimir Perier ordered Marshal Gérard, commanding 50,000 men in the Northern Army, to assist the Belgians. Louis-Philippe sent his sons, the Duke of Orléans and the Duke of Nemours, to join the expedition. By 6 August, French troops were prepared to enter Belgium, but the Belgian government hesitated, citing constitutional requirements for parliamentary approval. On 8 August, Leopold authorized Marshal Gérard to enter Belgium. French forces reached Brussels on 12 August, prompting William I to withdraw to avoid conflict with France. The French army returned to France by mid-September at the request of the London Conference.
This intervention demonstrated France's military capability and commitment to its pledges. France had promised not to reclaim lost territories and honored this by ensuring Belgium's independence and neutrality, while dismantling the fortified barrier. Domestically, the outcome was favorable for Louis-Philippe: patriots celebrated, and revolutionaries took pride in "liberating" an oppressed people. France also succeeded in fracturing the Holy Alliance, forming a liberal Western alliance with the UK and Belgium against the absolute monarchies of Austria, Prussia, and Russia, thereby ending its isolation in Europe.
The London Conference developed the Treaty of the Twenty-Four Articles on 15 October 1831, granting Belgium parts of Limburg and Luxembourg, as well as control over the Scheldt estuary. Belgium accepted it on 15 November, but the Netherlands refused.
On 14 December 1831, the four powers signed a secret agreement with Belgium regarding secure places, excluding France. Louis-Philippe was angered, [16] but Talleyrand reassured him with a note from the plenipotentiaries: "H.M. will find in this note expressed reasons to be completely reassured about the fear of a renewal of the Holy Alliance, with which the government seemed a little too preoccupied. When the United Kingdom and France march together on all major issues, and Europe knows and sees it, there is no possible Holy Alliance." [17] This laid the foundation for the "Entente Cordiale," a key principle of the July Monarchy's foreign policy. [18]
Alliance between France and Belgium
In 1830, Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg had sought a marriage alliance with Louis-Philippe's daughter but was initially rejected due to his uncertain status, a liaison with a dancer, and his Lutheran faith. These issues were resolved upon his accession to the Belgian throne: his position was secure, he ended his liaison, and he agreed to raise his children as Catholics. For Louis-Philippe, the marriage set a precedent for his children's future alliances.
Leopold visited Louis-Philippe at the Château de Compiègne from 29 May to 1 June 1832, where marriage terms were arranged between Leopold and Princess Louise d'Orléans, Louis-Philippe's eldest daughter.
The wedding took place in Compiègne on 9 August 1832. Bishop Gallard of Meaux officiated the Catholic ceremony, followed by Pastor Goepp of the Augsburg Confession for the Lutheran rite.
Despite Louise's initial reluctance due to the age difference, the marriage was successful and strengthened ties between France and Belgium. Leopold, close to the British court and uncle to Queen Victoria, helped reinforce the "Entente Cordiale" between France and the UK.
The Netherlands, refusing the Treaty of the Twenty-Four Articles, occupied Antwerp, prompting France and the UK to propose coercive measures at the London Conference on 1 October 1832. [19] On 22 October, Talleyrand and Palmerston signed a convention for joint action.
Prussia moved troops to the Belgian border, but France dismissed these as symbolic gestures. [20]
When the Dutch refused to evacuate Antwerp, Leopold I requested French intervention. On 14 November, the French Council of Ministers, with support from the king, Broglie, and Thiers, decided to act. The British government concurred that night.
Marshal Gérard, leading 70,000 men, including Louis-Philippe's sons, crossed into Belgium. On 19 November, French forces besieged Antwerp's citadel, which surrendered on 23 December. Louis-Philippe promptly handed the fortress to the Belgians and withdrew French troops, demonstrating France's reliability in the European concert.
Final settlement
In March 1838, William I accepted the Treaty of the Twenty-Four Articles, requiring Belgium to evacuate parts of Limburg and Luxembourg and repay its share of the common debt. Belgium resisted, but Palmerston, without consulting France, agreed with Austria, Prussia, and Russia to enforce the treaty. Louis-Philippe persuaded Leopold to comply, securing a reduction in Belgium's debt. An agreement was reached on 11 December 1838, ratified by the treaty of 19 April 1839, which resolved the Belgian question.
Polish question
France-Poland relations have historically been marked by mutual sympathy but limited practical support. France was unable to prevent the Partitions of Poland in the late 18th century. Emperor Nicholas I viewed the 1830 revolution in Paris as a threat to the European order established by the Congress of Vienna and considered intervening to restore Charles X. However, the November Uprising in Poland on 29 November 1830 diverted Russian forces, garnering widespread support in France from figures like Montalembert and La Fayette, who established a Franco-Polish Committee.
When the Polish Diet formed a provisional government under Prince Czartoryski and declared independence on 25 January 1831, French republicans called for military intervention, hoping to destabilize the monarchy. Louis-Philippe, however, deemed the French army incapable of sustaining a major conflict, with only 78,000 men available, including 40,000 in metropolitan France. During debates in the Chamber on 27 and 28 January 1831, Foreign Minister Sébastiani stated that while France sympathized with Poland, it could not intervene and that doing so would disrupt European peace. [21]
In December 1830, Louis-Philippe sent the Duke of Mortemart, Charles X's former ambassador to Russia, to reassure Nicholas I of the July Monarchy's intentions. En route through Poland in January 1831, Mortemart informed Polish emissaries that France would not intervene militarily.
France limited its support to encouraging the spread of the revolt to Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia, and Ukraine to distract Russian forces. However, after initial setbacks, the Russian army resumed its offensive in July 1831. In Paris, debates on Poland during the address to the throne in late July saw deputies like Baron Bignon advocate for intervention, but Council President Casimir Perier resisted, securing vague language in the address. On 16 August, the Chamber adopted the address by 282 votes to 73.
The Polish insurgents were soon confined to Warsaw, which fell to Russian forces on 8 September 1831. News of the defeat reached Paris on 15 September, sparking protests and attacks on Russian and Austrian embassies. On 16 September, the left criticized the government in the Chamber, with Sébastiani's statement that "tranquility reigned in Warsaw" drawing ire. A debate from 19 to 22 September saw François Mauguin challenge Casimir Perier, but the Chamber moved to the order of the day by 221 votes to 136, effectively closing the Polish question.
At a court ball in February 1832, La Fayette attempted to discuss Poland with Louis-Philippe, who responded that he had fulfilled his duty by protecting France from war and Europe from conflict: "I consider that I have fulfilled my duty by protecting my country from the scourge of war and Europe from a general conflagration." [21]
In 1836, France again refused to aid Poland when Russia, Austria, and Prussia invaded the Free City of Cracow, a refuge for Polish patriots. The powers occupied Cracow in February 1836, with Austria maintaining a garrison until 1841. France offered asylum to Polish exiles but took no further action, while the UK protested in vain.
Troubles in Italy
In early 1831, Italy experienced unrest. Following the election of Gregory XVI as pope on 2 February 1831, the Carbonari movement incited insurrections in the Papal States and the Duchy of Modena, forcing the duke to flee. The unrest spread across northern Italy.
The Pope, the Duke of Modena, and the Duchess of Parma requested Austrian assistance. Louis-Philippe and his government invoked the "principle of non-intervention," demanding that Austria refrain from intervening in Italy, as France would. However, France's domestic instability—marked by riots in Paris on 14 and 15 February 1831—weakened its position. [22] Austria proceeded to cross the Po in March 1831.
Despite public statements, Louis-Philippe was content to allow Metternich to suppress the Italian insurrection, as it included Louis Bonaparte's sons, Napoleon-Louis and Louis-Napoleon, whose success could strengthen Bonapartism in France.
Ancona Affair (April 1832)
In late 1831, unrest resumed in the Papal States, with Romagna and the Legations refusing papal troops. The papal legate called in Austrian forces, who occupied Bologna on 28 January 1832.
In response, Casimir Perier dispatched the ship "Suffren" and two frigates with 1,100 troops to Ancona, which they occupied despite protests from Gregory XVI and Metternich. The operation's forceful execution raised questions about France's intentions.
In Paris, the left celebrated, and Guizot claimed the action demonstrated the dissolution of the Holy Alliance and France's independent policy. Louis-Philippe publicly expressed displeasure, [23] but Perier affirmed France's stance: France would not tolerate foreign intervention in other states and would occupy Ancona as long as Austria occupied Bologna. Gregory XVI accepted the "temporary" occupation of Ancona on 17 April, which lasted until 1839 when Austria withdrew from Bologna.
