Forensic podiatry

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Forensic podiatry is a subdiscipline of forensic science in which specialized podiatric knowledge including foot and lower-limb anatomy, musculoskeletal function, deformities and diseases of the foot, ankle, lower extremities, and at times, the entire human body is used in the examination of foot-related evidence in the context of a criminal investigation. Forensic Podiatry has been defined as:

Contents

The application of sound and researched podiatry knowledge and experience in forensic investigations, to show the association of an individual with a scene of crime, or to answer any other legal question concerned with the foot or footwear that requires knowledge of the functioning foot. [1]

Those who specialize in this field need to have gained knowledge and experience in podiatry and also in forensic science and practice. [2]

Forensic podiatry is usually used to assist in the process of human identification, but can also be employed to help address issues relating to questions that have arisen within the context of forensic enquiry. Such questions could include whether or not a shoe could have had multiple wearers, what the effects of a shoe not fitting correctly could have been, whether or not someone could have placed their foot into a shoe that was too small for the postulated wearer's foot and other matters involving the podiatric interpretation of relevant evidential materials.

Each persons foot is unique to themselves. An Individual's foot shape depends on both environmental and genetic conditions. Environmental conditions like wearing certain types of footwear can influence a person's foot shape greatly. Factors like surgeries or walking habits (ex. often walking barefoot) can also give someone a unique foot structure. Genetics like the structure of the bones and how they are attached through a variety of ligaments are also unique to a person. Sizes of the ball or heel of the foot, as well as the shape of the toes can be very important determining features for forensic podiatrists. [3]

Areas of practice

There are currently four areas of forensic podiatry practice. These usually involve the analysis and interpretation in a forensic context of: [4]

Methods

Forensic podiatry techniques usually follow the ACE-V approach used widely in forensic science and practice. [5] Here, ACE is the acronym for the analysis, comparison and evaluation of an item of evidence with exemplar or reference material (such as a shoe, bare footprint or recording of a suspect's gait). Verification is about the independent working through of that same material by a peer forensic specialist to confirm whether or not they reach the same conclusions as the reporting specialist.

Physical evidence is generally understood to exist at two levels which have been described as demonstrating class and identification level characteristics. [4] Class level characteristics demonstrate consistency and compatibility, not uniqueness, which identification level characteristics are those which are understood to be unique (REF). Forensic podiatrists currently work with class level features alone although some of those features can demonstrate high levels of individuality. [4]

Given that forensic podiatrists currently deal with class level characteristics alone, their work would not in itself usually result in the incontrovertible identification of someone unless the situation is one in which a closed population (that is one in which there is a limited number of possible people to consider when considering the possibility of a match or mismatch between two evidential items from a podiatric perspective).

The evidential materials that would be considered by forensic podiatrists can sometimes fall within the specialist understanding of other disciplines. For example, forensic gait analysis case work has been undertaken by human movement scientists and the knowledge involved in forensic gait analysis is that possessed by some physical therapists and orthopedic specialists as well as podiatrists. [4]

Similarly, some evidential material of interest to forensic podiatrists is also of interest to other forensic specialists (particularly forensic marks examiners) although from their own particular perspectives [4] and forensic podiatrists always need to consider the potential for multidisciplinary considerations/collaborations.

Key historic developments

In 1937, Sir Sydney Smith, examining a pair of shoes left behind at the scene of a burglary in Falkirk, made deductions about the suspect. In spite of the suspect's agility as a cat burglar, he suggested that the suspect was short, had a left leg shorter than the right, a left foot an inch shorter and half an inch narrower than the right, had limited mobility in his left leg and was missing the fourth toe on that foot. He also suggested that the criminal would have a severe lateral spinal curvature. After a man was arrested in flagrante delicto at the scene of another cat burglary, and convicted, he allowed Smith to examine him in prison.

Smith discovered that he was five foot three, had had infantile paralysis in his left leg, that the leg was withered as a result, that his deductions about the size of the foot and leg were correct, but that the spinal curvature was less than he suspected. [6]

In 1972, Norman Gunn, a podiatric physician from Canada, was the first podiatrist worldwide to undertake forensic podiatry case work. [7]

In 1989, Wesley Vernon, a podiatrist from the UK, began to undertake research in forensic podiatry and later began to undertake case work from the mid 1990s.

In the early 1990s, John DiMaggio, a podiatric physician began to undertake forensic podiatry case work in the US.

In July 2000 forensic gait analysis was presented as evidence in a criminal trial for the first time. - Central Criminal Court, United Kingdom. [8]

In September 2003, an organization was formed – the American Society of Forensic Podiatry.

In 2007, the Council for the Registration of Forensic Practitioners (CRFP) developed a competency test for forensic podiatrists in the UK. The CRFP is no longer in existence, but this testing process was developed further by the Chartered Society of Forensic Sciences in the UK and is available for those practising in this field.

In July 2007, a forensic podiatry science and practice subcommittee was established within the structure of the International Association for Identification (IAI).

In 2009, the IAI published a document defining the role and scope of practise for forensic podiatrists. [2]

In 2011 an M-level course in forensic podiatry was developed at the University of Huddersfield in the UK. This was later developed further into a full MSc course in forensic podiatry at that university.

In 2011, the first forensic podiatry textbook was written. [5] In 2017, a much more comprehensive, updated 2nd edition of this book was published. [4]

In 2013 a forensic podiatry group was started at the New York College of Podiatric Medicine.

In 2013, a student forensic podiatry group was started at Temple University School of Podiatric Medicine.

In 2014, the forensic podiatry approach to bare footprint analysis was found to meet the US the United States Supreme Court's standard of admissibility through a Daubert hearing. [9]

Contemporary developments

In 2016, a forensic podiatry club was started at the Barry University School of Podiatric Medicine.

A formal class covering aspects of forensic podiatry is being held at New York College of Podiatric Medicine (open to podiatrist candidate)s. Students exit the class with an in depth knowledge of forensic podiatry and other legal knowledge applicable to current cases.

In 2017, at the behest of the UK regulator for forensic science, standards of practice for forensic gait analysis are being written and at the time of writing a draft document has been put out for consultation. It is anticipated[ according to whom? ] that these will be completed in early 2018.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Foot</span> Anatomical structure found in vertebrates

The foot is an anatomical structure found in many vertebrates. It is the terminal portion of a limb which bears weight and allows locomotion. In many animals with feet, the foot is a separate organ at the terminal part of the leg made up of one or more segments or bones, generally including claws and/or nails.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Podiatrist</span> Medical professional devoted to the medical treatment of disorders of the foot

A podiatrist is a medical professional devoted to the treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle, and related structures of the leg. The term originated in North America but has now become the accepted term in the English-speaking world for all practitioners of podiatric medicine. The word chiropodist was previously used in the United States, but it is now regarded as antiquated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Podiatry</span> Medicine branch focusing on the human lower extremities

Podiatry, or podiatric medicine and surgery, is a branch of medicine devoted to the study, diagnosis, and treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle and lower limb. The healthcare professional is known as a podiatrist. The US podiatric medical school curriculum includes lower extremity anatomy, general human anatomy, physiology, general medicine, physical assessment, biochemistry, neurobiology, pathophysiology, genetics and embryology, microbiology, histology, pharmacology, women's health, physical rehabilitation, sports medicine, research, ethics and jurisprudence, biomechanics, general principles of orthopedic surgery, plastic surgery, and foot and ankle surgery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Laetoli</span> National Historic Site of Tanzania

Laetoli is a pre-historic site located in Enduleni ward of Ngorongoro District in Arusha Region, Tanzania. The site is dated to the Plio-Pleistocene and famous for its Hominina footprints, preserved in volcanic ash. The site of the Laetoli footprints is located 45 km south of Olduvai gorge. The location and tracks were discovered by archaeologist Mary Leakey and her team in 1976, and were excavated by 1978. Based on analysis of the footfall impressions "The Laetoli Footprints" provided convincing evidence for the theory of bipedalism in Pliocene Hominina and received significant recognition by scientists and the public. Since 1998, paleontological expeditions have continued under the leadership of Amandus Kwekason of the National Museum of Tanzania and Terry Harrison of New York University, leading to the recovery of more than a dozen new Hominina finds, as well as a comprehensive reconstruction of the paleoecology. The site is a registered National Historic Sites of Tanzania.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flat feet</span> Foot arch deformity

Flat feet, also called pes planus or fallen arches, is a postural deformity in which the arches of the foot collapse, with the entire sole of the foot coming into complete or near-complete contact with the ground. Sometimes children are born with flat feet (congenital). There is a functional relationship between the structure of the arch of the foot and the biomechanics of the lower leg. The arch provides an elastic, springy connection between the forefoot and the hind foot so that a majority of the forces incurred during weight bearing on the foot can be dissipated before the force reaches the long bones of the leg and thigh.

In terrestrial animals, plantigrade locomotion means walking with the toes and metatarsals flat on the ground. It is one of three forms of locomotion adopted by terrestrial mammals. The other options are digitigrade, walking on the toes with the heel and wrist permanently raised, and unguligrade, walking on the nail or nails of the toes with the heel/wrist and the digits permanently raised. The leg of a plantigrade mammal includes the bones of the upper leg (femur/humerus) and lower leg. The leg of a digitigrade mammal also includes the metatarsals/metacarpals, the bones that in a human compose the arch of the foot and the palm of the hand. The leg of an unguligrade mammal also includes the phalanges, the finger and toe bones.

Podiatric Medical School is the term used to designate the institutions which educate students and train them to be podiatrists, which diagnose and treat conditions affecting the foot, ankle, and related structures of the leg. In the United States, only schools which are accredited by the Council on Podiatric Medical Education (CPME) may earn the status of being a Podiatric Medical School. The Doctor of Podiatric Medicine degree is commonly abbreviated D.P.M. degree. The D.P.M. degree is a prerequisite for an individual to be accepted into a CPME accredited residency. The preparatory education of most podiatric physicians — similar to the paths of traditional physicians — includes four years of undergraduate work, followed by four years in an accredited podiatric medical school, followed by a three- or four-year hospital-based podiatry residency. Optional one- to two-year fellowship in foot and ankle reconstruction, surgical limb salvage, sports medicine, plastic surgery, pediatric foot and ankle surgery, and wound care is also available.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arches of the foot</span> Load-bearing curves in the tarsal and metatarsal bones of the feet

The arches of the foot, formed by the tarsal and metatarsal bones, strengthened by ligaments and tendons, allow the foot to support the weight of the body in the erect posture with the least weight.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Footprint</span> Impressions or images left behind by a person walking or running

Footprints are the impressions or images left behind by a person walking or running. Hoofprints and pawprints are those left by animals with hooves or paws rather than feet, while "shoeprints" is the specific term for prints made by shoes. They may either be indentations in the ground or something placed onto the surface that was stuck to the bottom of the foot. A "trackway" is a set of footprints in soft earth left by a life-form; animal tracks are the footprints, hoofprints, or pawprints of an animal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shoe insert</span> Removable foot support placed inside footwear

A removable shoe insert, otherwise known as a foot orthosis, insole or inner sole, accomplishes many purposes, including daily wear comfort, height enhancement, plantar fasciitis treatment, arch support, foot and joint pain relief from arthritis, overuse, injuries, leg length discrepancy, and other causes such as orthopedic correction and athletic performance.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to forensic science:

Equine podiatry is the study and management of the equine foot based on its anatomy and function.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forensic footwear evidence</span>

Forensic footwear evidence can be used in legal proceedings to help prove that a shoe was at a crime scene. Footwear evidence is often the most abundant form of evidence at a crime scene and in some cases can prove to be as specific as a fingerprint. Initially investigators will look to identify the make and model of the shoe or trainer which made an impression. This can be done visually or by comparison with evidence in a database; both methods focus heavily on pattern recognition and brand or logo marks. Information about the footwear can be gained from the analysis of wear patterns which are dependent on angle of footfall and weight distribution. Detailed examination of footwear impressions can help to link a specific piece of footwear to a footwear imprint as each shoe will have unique characteristics.

Foot and ankle surgery is a sub-specialty of orthopedics and podiatry that deals with the treatment, diagnosis and prevention of disorders of the foot and ankle. Orthopaedic surgeons are medically qualified, having been through four years of college, followed by 4 years of medical school or osteopathic medical school to obtain an M.D. or D.O. followed by specialist training as a resident in orthopaedics, and only then do they sub-specialise in foot and ankle surgery. Training for a podiatric foot and ankle surgeon consists of four years of college, four years of podiatric medical school (D.P.M.), 3–4 years of a surgical residency and an optional 1 year fellowship.

People with diabetes have a greater chance of developing neuropathy, vascular disease, and infections, especially in the legs, so socks and footwear that reduce or eliminate pressures or hot spots is important. A diabetic sock is a non-restrictive, but close fitting sock which is designed to alleviate pressures on the foot or leg. Typically sufferers of diabetes are the most common users of this type of sock. Diabetes raises the blood sugar level, which can increase the risk of foot ulcers. Diabetic socks are made to be non-restrictive to circulation, but if inclusive of Medical Grade, FDA regulated gradient compression, they may include venous compression for enhanced blood circulation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cuboid syndrome</span> Medical condition

Cuboid syndrome or cuboid subluxation describes a condition that results from subtle injury to the calcaneocuboid joint, and ligaments in the vicinity of the cuboid bone, one of seven tarsal bones of the human foot.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pronation of the foot</span> Type of foot movement

Pronation is a natural movement of the foot that occurs during foot landing while running or walking. Composed of three cardinal plane components: subtalar eversion, ankle dorsiflexion, and forefoot abduction, these three distinct motions of the foot occur simultaneously during the pronation phase. Pronation is a normal, desirable, and necessary component of the gait cycle. Pronation is the first half of the stance phase, whereas supination starts the propulsive phase as the heel begins to lift off the ground.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Locomotor effects of shoes</span>

Locomotor effects of shoes are the way in which the physical characteristics or components of shoes influence the locomotion neuromechanics of a person. Depending on the characteristics of the shoes, the effects are various, ranging from alteration in balance and posture, muscle activity of different muscles as measured by electromyography (EMG), and the impact force. There are many different types of shoes that exist, such as running, walking, loafers, high heels, sandals, slippers, work boots, dress shoes, and many more. However, a typical shoe will be composed of an insole, midsole, outsole, and heels, if any. In an unshod condition, where one is without any shoes, the locomotor effects are primarily observed in the heel strike patterns and resulting impact forces generated on the ground.

Children's feet are smaller than those of adults, not reaching full size until the ages of 13 in girls and 15 in boys. There are correspondingly small sizes of shoes for them. In poor populations and tropical countries, children commonly go barefoot.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kewal Krishan (forensic anthropologist)</span> Indian forensic anthropologist (born 1973)

Kewal Krishan, an Indian forensic anthropologist, is a professor of physical anthropology and former Chair of Department of Anthropology at Panjab University, Chandigarh, India. He has recently been appointed as Dean, International Students, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India. He has contributed to the development of forensic anthropology in India. He is one of the very few forensic anthropology experts of the nation.

References

  1. ↑ Vernon ., McCourt F.J., “Forensic podiatry – a review and definition”, British Journal of Podiatry, Vol. 2, No. 2, May 1999, p. 45 – 48.
  2. 1 2 Vernon W., Brodie B., DiMaggio J., Gunn N., Kelly H., Nirenberg M., Reel S., Walker J., Forensic podiatry: role and scope of practice (In the context of forensic human identification). International Association for Identification ://www.theiai.org, 2009.
  3. 1 2 3 Krishan, Kewal; Kanchan, Tanuj; DiMaggio, John A. (October 2015). "Emergence of forensic podiatry—A novel sub-discipline of forensic sciences". Forensic Science International. 255: 16–27. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.06.012. ISSN   0379-0738. PMID   26163192.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 DiMaggio J., Vernon W., Forensic Podiatry: Principles and Methods, 2nd Edition, CRC Press, Jan. 2017.
  5. 1 2 DiMaggio J., Vernon W., Forensic Podiatry: Principles and Methods, Humana Press 2011.
  6. ↑ Smith, Sydney (1959). Mostly Murder. Granada. pp. 310–4. ISBN   0-586-06054-5.
  7. ↑ Vernon W., “The Foot in Identification” In: Thompson T., Black S., (Eds), Forensic Human Identification: An Introduction, Press, Nov. 2006.
  8. ↑ Vernon, Denis Wesley; DiMaggio, John A. (12 January 2017). Forensic Podiatry: Principles and Methods, Second Edition (2 ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. doi:10.1201/9781315395029. ISBN   978-1-315-39502-9.
  9. ↑ Nirenberg, N. (29 February 2016). "Meeting a Forensic Podiatry Admissibility Challenge: A Daubert Case Study". Journal of Forensic Sciences. 61 (3): 833–841. doi:10.1111/1556-4029.13037. PMID   27122428. S2CID   20208919.
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