Forensic palynology

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1871 plate of magnified pollen grains Plate O-Pollen.png
1871 plate of magnified pollen grains

Forensic palynology is a subdiscipline of palynology (the study of pollen grains, spores, and other palynomorphs.), that aims to prove or disprove a relationship among objects, people, and places that may pertain to both criminal and civil cases. [1] Pollen can reveal where a person or object has been, because regions of the world, countries, and even different parts of a single garden will have a distinctive pollen assemblage. [2] Pollen evidence can also reveal the season in which a particular object picked up the pollen. [3] Recent research into forensic palynology has seen advancements in DNA barcoding from pollen, to the level of singular pollen molecules, allowing DNA profiles to be created from singular palynomorphs, streamlining the efficiency and accuracy of taxonomic identification. [4]

Contents

Palynology is the study of palynomorphs – microscopic structures of both animal and plant origin that are resistant to decay. This includes spermatophyte pollen, as well as spores (fungi, bryophytes, and ferns), dinoflagellates, and various other organic microorganisms – both living and fossilized. [5] There are a variety of ways in which the study of these microscopic, walled particles can be applied to criminal forensics.

In areas such as New Zealand, where the demand for this field is high, forensic palynology has been used as evidence in many different case types that range anywhere from non-violent to extremely violent crimes. [6] Pollen has been used to trace activity at mass graves in Bosnia, [7] pinpoint the scene of a crime, [6] and catch a burglar who brushed against a Hypericum bush during a crime. [8] Because pollen has distinct morphology and is relatively indestructible, it is likely to adhere to a variety of surfaces often without notice and has even become a part of ongoing research into forensic bullet coatings. [9]

Present status

Forensic Palynology is an evolving forensic science application. And is mostly utilized in countries such as New Zealand, Australia, and the United Kingdom. [1] It is relatively "small, disparate, and fragmented" compared to the other approaches, thus, there is no thorough guide to achieve the best practice in forensic palynology. [10] Moreover, there is a limit in forensic palynologists as most skilled palynologists do not enter the forensic palynology field. [11] As becoming a Forensic Palynologist requires rigorous training and education, one must attain a PhD with sufficient background in studies such as forensic science, botany, ecology, geography, and climatology. [12] Most importantly they must receive training in the field of quaternary science. [12] Recently however, there has been expansive research into areas that have yet to well documented, such as the study that did research on the effects that an arid climate had on pollen analytics that took place in southeast Spain. [13] This study not only expanded the use of forensic palynology into new parts of the world that have not yet been introduced to this science, but also collected results that outline a proper method for pollen spectra collecting that is effective in arid conditions. [13] Another recent study did research in Bolivia to study the pollen assemblage in high altitude soils, this study also created a forensic database for uses in non-seasonal soil. [14] This database creation is allowing forensic palynology to be used in a more broad area now, as data for both high altitude pollen assemblage and non-seasonal soil data has been collected. [14] Another recent advancement in forensic palynology is the massive expansion of the largest pollen database on the internet, PalDat. The University of Vienna and AGES worked to integrate over 2000 datasets consisting of detailed methods for pollen analysis including the use of high resolution light microscopy micrographs of hydrated pollen, and polarity ratios to determine the shape and aperture position of a pollen grain. [15]

Duties

In terms of criminal investigation, forensic palynologist services are requested from cases such as forgery, rape, homicide, genocide, terrorism, drug dealing, assault, and robbery. [1] It usually consist of a single individual who works with the polynomial case. Of course, the palynologist could still consult other professionals. Furthermore, the palynologist should be given significant information as there is only one person handling the analysis of the samples. Important duties to note is that they ensure that all paperwork is dated, signed, filed and archived in order to maintain good records. Forensic Palynologists usually visit the crime scene to survey the vegetation. For example, identify plants and their characteristics and qualities ( size, vigor...) and obtain plant samples to allow for analysis like ground sampling. Geography analysis including a survey of the topography, altitude, climate, and geology of the area is also required, as all of these factors influence the assemblage and composition of palynomorphs. [16] Scrubbing, scraping, washing is essential for retrieval of palynomorphs from various materials. And utilize other methods like police photographers, cartographers, and botanists. It is vital for the Forensic Palynologist to visit the crime scene before the Crime Science Investigators (CSI) or Scenes of crime Officers (SOCOs) to avoid disturbance of environmental evidence and contamination. [10]

Advantages

Pollen and similar spores are generally less than 50 microns across, resulting in their easy and unnoticeable transportation.

Pollen grains have a variety of shapes, sizes, colors, structures, and numbers identification keys exist as a reference. Large-scale collections of pollen specimens that reside in museums and university herbaria also serve as a resource for forensic palynologists to identify and classify the samples they collect. There are also many online databases that consist of thousands of records and identification methods for palynomorphs that are accessible worldwide. [15]

A sample of pollen from a crime scene can help to identify a specific plant species that may have had contact with a victim, or point to evidence that does not ecologically belong in the area. A pollen assemblage is a sample of pollen with a variety of plant species represented. Identifying those species and their relative frequency can point to a specific area or time of year. This could aid in the determination of whether the scene where the pollen was found was the primary scene or secondary scene. Pollen is made in great numbers, by a large variety of plants, and it is designed to be dispersed (either via wind, insect, or another method) throughout the immediate environment. Pollen can also be found in soil, clothing, hair, drugs, stomach contents, ropes, and rock which are places where it would be difficult for the suspect to remove because of pollen's adhesion properties. [6] [5] In some cases, where the pollen of a plant is absent, fungi and fungal spores may be able to detect a plant's presence at the site. [17] There have been cases where the presence of rarely reported fungi and fungal spores have helped identify information in forensic cases. [17] Pollen has been found inside counterfeit pharmaceuticals that have been transported across the world, the presence of the pollen can be used to trace these illegal drugs back to their manufacturing region and even factory. [18]

Disadvantages

One of the main disadvantages in this field is the lack of trained specialists. [5] As of 2008, there are no academic centers or training facilities for the use of pollen in forensics in the U.S. [19] [5] This is crucial because of the expertise required to identify palynomorphs and to apply the data to geolocation information. [20] Many things could go wrong and invalidate any samples collected, especially if the personnel handling them is not experienced. On the subject of experience, contamination is another major problem that can invalidate the use of a sample as evidence; therefore, it is important that samples are collected early on with collection sites identified depending on the case. [21]

Limited access to international databases can also prove to be an issue when it comes time for the analyst to identify pollen evidence to a specific family or genus of plants. [22] Currently, a database from Austria called PalDat exists but there are no known databases to exist in North America. [6] However, PalDat is internationally accessible and data from around the world has been published. [15]

Another disadvantage is in the form of the lack of history and therefore acceptance in the forensic setting and the court of law. Forensic palynology is not used in many countries and the application and methodologies have not been reviewed extensively in the court as this methodology has only been around for 50 years and only in some countries. [23] This means that forensic palynology evidence is rarely submitted due to lack of history in the courts, and lack of application in most countries.

Methods

Sample Collection

Because pollen can be easily picked up by anyone, it is important that pollen samples are collected as soon as possible to prevent contamination from outside sources. [19] Samples then need to be prepared and placed on slides in order to fully be safe from contamination. [19] The process of preparing the samples and identifying them is time-consuming. When collecting a sample, it should be paired with site surveys and photos of the scene to provide context for later uses. [1] For example, if the pollen evidence is used in court, then the additional context would be useful.

Sample collection methods will vary depending on the case investigation and on the collector. [1] Due to the lack of palynologists in the forensic field, other forensic scientists that are present may have to collect the samples. [1] This raises issues in terms of the quality of the sample, since collection sites for the sample should be determined depending on the case. [1] Discussion with the investigation team is necessary in order to establish the best sampling method. [1]

When collection sites have been determined, samples can be retrieved with clean instruments and placed into tightly sealed, sterile containers. [1] Examples are "sterile zip-lock plastic bags, or screw-top plastic (in preference to glass) containers." [1] After each sample, instruments should be thoroughly cleaned or replaced to prevent contamination. [1] In cases, where collection is by hand, gloves should be used and replaced after each sample. [1] Samples should be labeled and sample history documentation should be maintained to keep track of the people who have had access to the sample. [1]

Analysis

Analyzing the samples, once the palynomorphs have been extracted, will allow for identification, which can then be used in a forensic case to relate a person or object to a crime scene, or even to determine whether the scene at which the pollen was found was the primary or the secondary scene. [19]

Samples are chemically processed with a mix of acids, sodium hydroxide, acetic anhydride with water washes in between. [17] They are then neutralized, and the extracts are stained and mounted onto slides for microscopic examination. [17] This helps in identification with the help of available reference collections to make comparisons on the pollen's characteristics. [19] The scanning electron microscope (SEM) has been used traditionally since the 1970s for primary identification of palynomorphs, but is very time-consuming, tedious, and not ideal for routine analysis. [5]

Compared to the SEM, semi-automated pollen grain imaging techniques such as Transmitted Light Microscopy (TLM), Widefield fluorescent method, and Structured illumination (Apotome) were found to have a higher speed and accuracy when it came to the identification of pollen spores. [5]

DNA Barcoding is another method used to differentiate between pollen grains by comparing their DNA sequences. [5] A pollen grain of 10 micrometers in length is required. [5] Once the sample is collected and prepared, genetic markers are placed, then the DNA is isolated, and finally the DNA is sequenced, usually through high throughout sequencing (HTS). [5] HTS is faster and less expensive than traditional methods for DNA barcoding. [5]

Case Examples

Austria, 1959

One of the earliest document cases in which pollen plays a key role took place in Austria. A man went missing, and was presumed murdered, but no body was found. The authorities had arrested a suspect, who had motive for the murder, but did not have a body or confession, and the case stalled. A search of the suspect's belongings yielded a pair of muddy boots. The mud was sampled and given to Wilhelm Klaus, at the University of Vienna's Paleobotany Department, for analysis. Dr. Klaus found modern pollen from a variety of species, including spruce, willow, and alder. He also found fossilized hickory pollen grains, from a species long extinct. There was only one area of the Danube River Valley that hosted those living plants, and had Miocene-aged rock deposits that would contain the fossilized species. When the suspect was presented with this information, he willingly confessed and lead authorities to the sites of both the murder and the body, both of which were inside the region indicated by Dr. Klaus. [6] [24]

United States, 1970

The first cases that involved forensic palynology in the United States was in 1970, where Honeybee pollination studies were issued. During this time honey pollen analysis began growing as the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), insured beekeepers a higher world market price for their honey. Under the premisses that the honey was produced on USA grounds. Thus, honey samples were sent for pollen analysis, where confirmation that the honey was produced in the USA was concluded or not. Generally, most of the cases during this time involved lawsuits concerning beekeepers. For example, a Michigan beekeeper arose suspect of importing beehives from the southeastern USA that weren't inspected for mites. This led to the USDA inspecting honey samples where it was concluded that they were imported from the Southeastern region of USA. Due to that the honey contained floral types common to the Southeastern region and not found in Michigan. [25]

United Kingdom, 1993

An example concerning Forensic Palynology in the United Kingdom, took place during 1993 handled by Patricia Wiltshire. [26] Where it involved a murder case in which the body was laid on soil that preserved pollen. Wiltshire then found traces of walnut pollen in the soil and suspect's shoes, however, the walnut pollen found was unusual as there was no walnut site nearby. However, It was later discovered that a walnut tree was cut down thirty years before and the walnut pollen remained. the pollen was then analyzed and linked to the suspect in the crime scene. Thus, the walnut pollen provided a significant role solving the case. [27]

New Zealand, 2005

After a home invasion, two burglars brushed past a Hypericum bush outside of the house. One of the burglars was brought in as a suspect, but all evidence was circumstantial, and the man did not confess. Analysis of his clothes revealed the Hypericum pollen. The presence of pollen is ubiquitous, but in this case, the pollen was clumped onto the clothing (rather than dusted) and did not seem to be simply the result of air dispersal. It was ultimately concluded that "the clothes had so much Hypericum pollen on them that they had to have been in direct and intimate contact with a flowering bush." [8]

United States, 2015

A modern application of forensic palynology occurred in 2015, in the city of Boston, Massachusetts. A body of a young female child was discovered by law enforcement in the Boston Harbour, but no identifying features remained as the body was in the late stages of decomposition. Investigators submitted samples taken from the clothes of the victim, a blanket found with the body, as well as a small amount of recovered hair to the U.S. Customs and Border Protection directorate laboratory in Houston, Texas, for pollen analysis. The report from the submitted samples provided investigators with information they could use to identify the unknown victim. [28]

The pollen assemblage created from the submitted samples indicated the victim was in the north-eastern United States before her death. The individual taxa of plant species observed in the assemblage also indicated that the victim lived in, or spent much of her time in, a developed, urban environment. The assemblage also captured pollen of the Lebanese cedar tree (Cedrus libani), native to the Eastern Mediterranean region of Europe. The species of cedar observed in the assemblage was thought by investigators to most likely be from an ornamental piece in a park or other conservation area. This is when the investigators discovered individuals of the Lebanese cedar tree in the Arnold Arboretum, a public park that is a part of Harvard University. [28]

Investigators then asked around the neighborhoods surrounding the arboretum, and a tip led them to a resident who, after questioning, admitted that her boyfriend at the time had abused the child, which resulted in the child's death. The man who murdered the child was sentenced to serve a minimum of 20 years for second degree murder. The mother's involvement in the crime is not reported, though she served 2 years probation for accessory after a plea deal for providing information about her then boyfriend who had committed the act. [28]

Argentina, 2023

A man was reported missing to the local police in Buenos Aires, Argentina. The family reported a possible suspect due to the fact the missing person and the suspect had intense arguments not long before his disappearance. The police searched the suspects house and found bloodstains on clothing items under the bed. They then took clothing items of the suspect for evidence analysis and soil samples from the garden of the suspects house. 25 days later, the police found the missing persons body was found 1000 meters off a coastline. Forensic mycology and palynology was then applied to analysis the palynomorphs and fungal species, as soil samples from the location of the corpse were analyzed. Samples were first acquired by scarping the surface area and then filtration and acetolysis was conducted to isolate the pollen samples. The analysis of the suspects clothing was then compared to the analysis of the corpse and the surrounding area. Results indicated that the corpse had a palynomorph composition of marine species, the quantity and exact species were all documented. The soil from the suspects house had a continental palynomorph composition that was also fully documented and recorded. The suspects bloodstained clothing had the same marine palynomorph composition as the body and the surrounding area. Soil samples in the suspects car and under the soles of the suspects shoes also contained the same palynomorph composition as the coastline area where the body was found. Along with other forensic evidence, the suspect was found guilty and the use of forensic palynology was used to help close this case. [29]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pollen</span> Grains containing the male gametophytes of seed plants

Pollen is a powdery substance produced by most types of flowers of seed plants for the purpose of sexual reproduction. It consists of pollen grains, which produce male gametes. Pollen grains have a hard coat made of sporopollenin that protects the gametophytes during the process of their movement from the stamens to the pistil of flowering plants, or from the male cone to the female cone of gymnosperms. If pollen lands on a compatible pistil or female cone, it germinates, producing a pollen tube that transfers the sperm to the ovule containing the female gametophyte. Individual pollen grains are small enough to require magnification to see detail. The study of pollen is called palynology and is highly useful in paleoecology, paleontology, archaeology, and forensics. Pollen in plants is used for transferring haploid male genetic material from the anther of a single flower to the stigma of another in cross-pollination. In a case of self-pollination, this process takes place from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Palynology</span> Study of microorganisms and microfossils composed acid-resistant, organic material

Palynology is the study of microorganisms and microscopic fragments of mega-organisms that are composed of acid-resistant organic material and occur in sediments, sedimentary rocks, and even some metasedimentary rocks. Palynomorphs are the microscopic, acid-resistant organic remains and debris produced by a wide variety of plants, animals, and Protista that have existed since the late Proterozoic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forensic dentistry</span> Aspect of criminal investigation

Forensic dentistry or forensic odontology involves the handling, examination, and evaluation of dental evidence in a criminal justice context. Forensic dentistry is used in both criminal and civil law. Forensic dentists assist investigative agencies in identifying human remains, particularly in cases when identifying information is otherwise scarce or nonexistent—for instance, identifying burn victims by consulting the victim's dental records. Forensic dentists may also be asked to assist in determining the age, race, occupation, previous dental history, and socioeconomic status of unidentified human beings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Micropaleontology</span> Branch of paleontology that studies microfossils

Micropaleontology is the branch of paleontology (palaeontology) that studies microfossils, or fossils that require the use of a microscope to see the organism, its morphology and its characteristic details.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hair analysis</span> Chemical analysis of a hair sample

Hair analysis may refer to the chemical analysis of a hair sample, but can also refer to microscopic analysis or comparison. Chemical hair analysis may be considered for retrospective purposes when blood and urine are no longer expected to contain a particular contaminant, typically three months or less.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Post-mortem interval</span> Time that has elapsed since a person has died

The post-mortem interval (PMI) is the time that has elapsed since an individual's death. When the time of death is not known, the interval may be estimated, and so an approximate time of death established. Postmortem interval estimations can range from hours, to days or even years depending on the type of evidence present. There are standard medical and scientific techniques supporting such an estimation.

Forensic identification is the application of forensic science, or "forensics", and technology to identify specific objects from the trace evidence they leave, often at a crime scene or the scene of an accident. Forensic means "for the courts".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bloodstain pattern analysis</span> Forensic method

Bloodstain pattern analysis (BPA) is a forensic discipline focused on analyzing bloodstains left at known, or suspected crime scenes through visual pattern recognition and physics-based assessments. This is done with the purpose of drawing inferences about the nature, timing and other details of the crime. At its core, BPA revolves around recognizing and categorizing bloodstain patterns, a task essential for reconstructing events in crimes or accidents, verifying statements made during investigations, resolving uncertainties about involvement in a crime, identifying areas with a high likelihood of offender movement for prioritized DNA sampling, and discerning between homicides, suicides, and accidents.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forensic biology</span> Forensic application of the study of biology

Forensic biology is the application of biological principles and techniques in the investigation of criminal and civil cases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forensic geology</span>

Forensic geology is the study of evidence relating to materials found in the Earth used to answer questions raised by the legal system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pollen calendar</span> Record of pollen rates over a year

A pollen calendar is used to show the peak pollen times for different types of plant pollen, which causes allergic reactions in certain people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forensic geophysics</span> Use of geophysics tools in forensic science

Forensic geophysics is a branch of forensic science and is the study, the search, the localization and the mapping of buried objects or elements beneath the soil or the water, using geophysics tools for legal purposes. There are various geophysical techniques for forensic investigations in which the targets are buried and have different dimensions. Geophysical methods have the potential to aid the search and the recovery of these targets because they can non-destructively and rapidly investigate large areas where a suspect, illegal burial or, in general, a forensic target is hidden in the subsoil. When in the subsurface there is a contrast of physical properties between a target and the material in which it is buried, it is possible to individuate and define precisely the concealing place of the searched target. It is also possible to recognize evidences of human soil occupation or excavation, both recent and older. Forensic geophysics is an evolving technique that is gaining popularity and prestige in law enforcement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forensic statistics</span>

Forensic statistics is the application of probability models and statistical techniques to scientific evidence, such as DNA evidence, and the law. In contrast to "everyday" statistics, to not engender bias or unduly draw conclusions, forensic statisticians report likelihoods as likelihood ratios (LR). This ratio of probabilities is then used by juries or judges to draw inferences or conclusions and decide legal matters. Jurors and judges rely on the strength of a DNA match, given by statistics, to make conclusions and determine guilt or innocence in legal matters.

Professor Patricia Wiltshire is a forensic ecologist, botanist and palynologist. She has been consulted by police forces and industry in almost 300 investigations in several countries and has been instrumental in solving several high-profile crimes, including the killings of Sarah Payne and Millie Dowler, the cold case of Christopher Laverack, the Soham murders, and the Ipswich serial murders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forensic mycology</span>

Forensic mycology is the use of mycology in criminal investigations. Mycology is used in estimating times of death or events by using known growth rates of fungi, in providing trace evidence, and in locating corpses. It also includes tracking mold growth in buildings, the use of fungi in biological warfare, and the use of psychotropic and toxic fungus varieties as illicit drugs or causes of death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ear print analysis</span>

Ear print analysis is used as a means of forensic identification intended as an identification tool similar to fingerprinting. An ear print is a two-dimensional reproduction of the parts of the outer ear that have touched a specific surface. Ear prints and their use for identification were first discovered by Fritz Hirschi in 1965. Fritz Hirschi was the first to identify a criminal using this method, in Switzerland in 1965 and ear print analysis has also been successfully used to solve crimes in the UK and the Netherlands. In addition to identification, the height of an ear imprint at a crime scene may also provide investigators with information regarding the stature of the perpetrator.

Sophie Warny is a Belgian Antarctic researcher, best known for her work on palynology. As an associate professor at Louisiana State University in the Department of Geology and Geophysics and one of the curators at the Museum of Natural Science, Warny studies past climate change patterns by examining fossilized pollen and spores. She is currently the vice president of the Gulf Coast Section of the Society for Sedimentary Geology (GCSSEPM).

Philippe Steemans is a Belgian geologist researcher, best known for his work on palynology. As a Senior Researcher of the National Fund for Scientific Research (NFSR) at the University of Liège, Belgium, in the Department of Geology, Steemans studies fossilised spores from Palaeozoic, mainly from their first occurrence in the Ordovician up to the Devonian.

Candice Mae Bridge is an American chemist and Associate Professor of Chemistry and Forensic Science at the University of Central Florida. Her research considers the development of mass spectroscopy for forensic analysis, including the characterization of lubricant from rape victims and residue from gunshots, as well as the identification of drugs in urine samples.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forensic colorimetry</span> Color analysis technique

Forensic colorimetry, or forensic color analysis, is the examination of specimen color for purposes of forensic investigation. Typical specimens involved in color analyses include pigments, dyes, or other objects that are distinguishable by their intrinsic color. Analyses may be conducted by-eye or by computational methods, both by matching specimen colors to a standardised chart or database.

References

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  20. ↑ Riley, Kimberly C.; Woodard, Jeffrey P.; Hwang, Grace M.; Punyasena, Surangi W. (1 October 2015). "Progress towards establishing collection standards for semi-automated pollen classification in forensic geo-historical location applications". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 221: 117–127. Bibcode:2015RPaPa.221..117R. doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2015.06.005. ISSN   0034-6667.
  21. ↑ Wiltshire, Patricia E. J. (2 January 2016). "Protocols for forensic palynology". Palynology. 40 (1): 4–24. Bibcode:2016Paly...40....4W. doi:10.1080/01916122.2015.1091138. ISSN   0191-6122. S2CID   131148113.
  22. ↑ Alotaibi, Saqer S.; Sayed, Samy M.; Alosaimi, Manal; Alharthi, Raghad; Banjar, Aseel; Abdulqader, Nosaiba; Alhamed, Reem (May 2020). "Pollen molecular biology: Applications in the forensic palynology and future prospects: A review". Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences. 27 (5): 1185–1190. Bibcode:2020SJBS...27.1185A. doi:10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.02.019. ISSN   1319-562X. PMC   7182995 . PMID   32346322.
  23. ↑ Mildenhall, D. C.; Wiltshire, P. E. J.; Bryant, V. M. (22 November 2006). "Forensic palynology: Why do it and how it works". Forensic Science International. 163 (3): 163–172. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2006.07.012. ISSN   0379-0738. PMID   16920303.
  24. ↑ "Forensic Palynology: A New Way to Catch Crooks". http. Retrieved 25 May 2021.{{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  25. ↑ Bryant, Vaughn M.; Jones, Gretchen D. (22 November 2006). "Forensic palynology: Current status of a rarely used technique in the United States of America". Forensic Science International. 163 (3): 183–197. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2005.11.021. ISSN   0379-0738. PMID   16504436.
  26. ↑ Laurence, Andrew R.; Bryant, Vaughn M. (2014), "Forensic Palynology", in Bruinsma, Gerben; Weisburd, David (eds.), Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice, New York, NY: Springer, pp. 1741–1754, doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-5690-2_169, ISBN   978-1-4614-5690-2 , retrieved 5 March 2022
  27. ↑ "Forensic science: How pollen is a silent witness to solving murders". BBC News. 26 January 2020. Retrieved 5 March 2022.
  28. 1 2 3 Laurence, Andrew R.; Bryant, Vaughn M. (1 September 2019). "Forensic palynology and the search for geolocation: Factors for analysis and the Baby Doe case". Forensic Science International. 302: 109903. doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2019.109903 . ISSN   0379-0738. PMID   31400618. S2CID   199527472.
  29. ↑ Povilauskas, Leticia Karina; Tranchida, María Cecilia (May 2023). "Palynology and mycology as biological evidence in a homicide case". Journal of Forensic Sciences. 68 (3): 1064–1072. doi:10.1111/1556-4029.15249. ISSN   0022-1198. PMID   37031349.
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