| Hyperolius nitidulus | |
|---|---|
Scientific classification  | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Amphibia |
| Order: | Anura |
| Family: | Hyperoliidae |
| Genus: | Hyperolius |
| Species: | H. nitidulus |
| Binomial name | |
| Hyperolius nitidulus Peters, 1875 | |
Hyperolius nitidulus is a species of frog from the family Hyperoliidae. It is found on the West African savannas between Guinea and Mali in the west and Nigeria and Cameroon in the east. [1] [2] Common name plain reed frog has been coined for it. [1]
Hyperolius nitidulus are medium-sized reed frogs with a rather blunt snout. Males vary in size between 23 and 29 mm (0.91 and 1.14 in) and on average weight about one gram. [3] Females are larger and heavier than males, their body size can vary between 24 and 32 mm (0.94 and 1.26 in) with an average weight of about two grams before laying eggs. [4] This species has a large choana, which is not hidden beneath edge of mandible like in most Hyperolius species. [5] They have a relatively large tongue which is broad and shaped like a heart. Their dorsal view is roundish and sometimes a bit pointy. [5] From a lateral view their body is flattened but some have a round truncate. The position of the naris is slightly close to snout tip than to the eye. Skin is laterally smooth and with small warts. [5] Body is slender and half cylindrical with thin limbs. They have extra skin folds that are used to hide their feet while aestivating during dry conditions. Fingers and toes have circummarginal discs. [3] Males have a median subgular vocal sac which is used for calling. [6]
During their juvenile stage their color is beige with a darker lightly flanked stripe at the side from snout to vent. As an adult they exhibit metachrosis (change in color), this color change is based on many factors such temperature, humidity. [7] During the night the uniformly color is beige and during the day the color can vary between yellow and orange with spots. [5] During the dry season the juveniles become white as they aestivate the skin in the inside of their limbs becomes red due to the underlying capillary network.
Adults are insectivores, usually consuming taxa such as Drosophila , Musca , Phormia , Lucilia , and Calliphora . [4]
Breeding normally occurs during wet season, that is May–October. [6] [7] During mating season males will migrate to temporary ponds and at times stay there and wander between ponds. Males on average stay for several days or even weeks, while females only visit the ponds only for oviposition. While in the ponds males begin calling between dusk and midnight. [6] [7] Males have two distinct calls; one call is used for mating to attract females, and the second call is used as a territorial call. Mating call is fairly short metallic that can last from 0.16 to 0.24 seconds with an average frequency of 2.04–3.43 Kilohertz; the frequency varies depending on the size of the frog. Territorial call sounds like a “croak”; it is deeper than the mating call and lasts for a longer period of time. On average each calls can last from 0.28 to 0.36 seconds with a frequency of 0.98–2.0 Kilohertz. [4] [6] Males tend to become aggressive when defending their small calling territories. [6]
The female deposits her eggs in the water, attaching the clutch underwater where there is vegetation at the bottom of the pond. [6] Females have the ability to lay 94–800 eggs per clutch. [8] Females are able to produce several clutches during one mating season. Nonetheless, clutch size will decrease when multiple clutches are laid. [8] There is no parental care. Eggs are white with a dark brown animal pole. [6]
Two to fives days after the egg were laid the embryos start to hatch as are free-swimming tadpoles. [6] The tadpole development may take longer because it is dependent on water temperature. Free-living larvae stay in the vegetation areas at the edge of the pond and feed of algae. [4] [7] During this period the larvae are at high risk of many predators such as dragonfly and beetle larvae, turtles, and most fish. The tadpole stage lasts six to eight weeks, before the tadpoles metamorphose. For the frog to mature completely it requires about two months. [8]
Hyperolius nitidulus inhabit margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in savanna, grassland and bushland habitats. It is a very adaptable species that also occurs in many human-modified areas, such as cultivated land, towns, and gardens. [1]
Hyperolius nitidulus live in an environment with a wet season that can be cold and humid, and an extremely hot and dry season. [3] [5] During the hot and dry season the frog is dependent on water therefore it has special adaptations to survive the extreme climate. Hyperolius nitidulus is known for its unique aestivation behavior during the hot and dry season. During dry season Hyperolius nitidulus do not seek shelter or hide, instead, they fully expose themselves to the sun by sitting on dry plants to reduce rapid water loss and can remain in this sitting position for months without food or water. [7] The juveniles only move when they are in serious danger. They sit with their legs held tightly to the body and feet hidden under their skin folds. [8] During this period, since there is no food or water intake, the juvenile frog does not urinate or defecate. The body stores all nitrogenous waste as urea in body fluids and purines. As the hot weather increases the dorsal skin of the frog becomes white due to the presence iridophores that can reflect light like a mirror since they are filled with purines crystals.
Juveniles are the only ones that survive a dry season because most adults cannot adapt to the changes in living condition and die. [1] [6] Juveniles born in the first 2/3 of the wet season have enough time to mature and reproduce in the same season. [3] These juveniles must mature quickly and use all their energy for growth and reproduction, which prevents them from preparing for the dry season that lies ahead; they will die when dry season begins due to the lack of energy. [4] Juveniles that are born in the last third of the wet season take their time maturing and prepare themselves for the dry season. These last juveniles do not reproduce, instead, they allocate all their resources to energy storage to be able to survive the dry season and hope to reproduce the following wet season. [5]
Hyperolius hypsiphonus is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is found in southern Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, the western Republic of the Congo, and northwestern Angola. Common name cross-banded egg-guarding frog has been proposed for it.
Hyperolius jynx is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is endemic to the Rumpi Hills in south-western Cameroon. The common name smooth egg-guarding frog has been proposed for this species.
Hyperolius koehleri is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is known from southeastern Nigeria, southern Cameroon, and northern Gabon. It is likely to also be found in Equatorial Guinea and the adjacent Republic of the Congo. Common name Koehler's green frog has been coined for it.
Hyperolius bolifambae is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is known from southeastern Nigeria, southern Cameroon, and southwestern Central African Republic, with an isolated record in northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo ; the latter record may be considered doubtful. It likely has a broader range towards south and east than currently documented, and the AmphibiaWeb includes Gabon and the Republic of the Congo in the distribution.
Hyperolius concolor, also known as the variable reed frog or Hallowell's sedge frog, is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It occurs in West and Middle Africa.
Hyperolius guttulatus is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It occurs in West and Middle Africa between Sierra Leone in the west and Gabon in the east/south. Common name dotted reed frog has been coined for this species.
Hyperolius mitchelli is a species of frogs in the family Hyperoliidae. It is found in the area between northeastern Tanzania, Malawi, and central Mozambique.
Hyperolius molleri is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is endemic to São Tomé Island. Records from Príncipe now refer to Hyperolius drewesi, described as a distinct species in 2016.
Hyperolius parallelus, also known as the Angolan reed frog, is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is found in Southern and Central Africa. It is part of the so-called Hyperolius viridiflavus species complex and has a complex history of taxonomic treatments.
Hyperolius pusillus is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is found throughout diverse environments in eastern and southern Africa. It is a very common frog. Its natural habitats are open savanna, bush land and grassland. Breeding takes place in shallow pans, vleis, open swamps, and dams with floating vegetation such as water lilies.
Hyperolius sheldricki is a species of small frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is endemic to southeast Kenya. The type locality is in the Tsavo East National Park.
Hyperolius swynnertoni is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is found in the southern portion of the eastern Zimbabwe uplands and adjacent Mozambique. It is also known as the Swynnerton's reed frog, with the subspecies "broadleyi" as the Broadley's tree frog or Broadley's forest treefrog.
Hyperolius sylvaticus is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is found in southern Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, and western Cameroon, with a gap in Benin. It is also likely to occur in Liberia. Common name Bobiri reed frog has been coined for this species.
The common reed frog is a species of tree frogs in the family Hyperoliidae found in Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda, and possibly the Central African Republic, Chad, and Eritrea. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forest, subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest, subtropical or tropical moist montane forest, dry savanna, moist savanna, subtropical or tropical dry shrubland, subtropical or tropical moist shrubland, subtropical or tropical seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland, subtropical or tropical high-altitude grassland, rivers, swamps, freshwater lakes, intermittent freshwater lakes, freshwater marshes, intermittent freshwater marshes, freshwater springs, arable land, pastureland, rural gardens, urban areas, heavily degraded former forests, water storage areas, ponds, irrigated land, seasonally flooded agricultural land, and canals and ditches.
Hyperolius wermuthi is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is found in Ivory Coast, southern Guinea, and Liberia. The correct name for this species is likely Hyperolius soror. It is so similar to Hyperolius fusciventris that it has likely been overlooked elsewhere in West Africa. Common name Wermuth's reed frog has been coined for this species.
Edalorhina perezi is a species of frog in the family Leptodactylidae. It is one of the only two species in the genus Edalorhina in the family Leptodactylidae. This species is diurnal and terrestrial. During mating season both female and male frogs gather around treefall pools. It is found in Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, and possibly Bolivia. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, and freshwater marshes. The species listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List and the population is stable.
Phrynomantis microps is an African frog with many interesting adaptations to the savannah. These frogs are also called the Accra snake-necked frog. They are found across Western and Central Africa. One of its distinguishing features is the peptide secretion on its skin, which goes beyond toxicity and seems to inhibit aggressive behavior like biting and stinging from large ants. This allows Phrynomantis microps to live in humid burrows within large ant nests and termite mounds, where they are frequently found. While Phrynomantis microps feeds on similar insects such as the termite Macrotermes bellicosus, they have never been found to feed on the ants they share the nest with. These frogs are medium-sized and have a bright red pelvic region.
Du Toit's torrent frog, the Mt. Elgon torrent frog, or the Kenya rocky river frog is a possibly extinct species of frog in the family Petropedetidae. It is endemic to Mount Elgon, where it has been observed along fast-flowing montane streams surrounded by dense forest in Kenya; it has not been found on the Ugandan part of the mountain, but is expected to occur in more localities than those it has been found in. This species rests on rocks and logs near these streams, sometimes hanging to them like an insect, or in the water beneath them, and is a capable swimmer. It is one of many, often taxonomically unrelated, frogs referred to as torrent frogs.
The grey foam-nest tree frog, or southern foam-nest tree frog, is a species of frog in the family Rhacophoridae. They are found in southern Africa.
Thoropa taophora, also known as the rock frog, is a species of frog in the family Cycloramphidae. These frogs are native to Brazil, where they inhabit the mountains and costal areas within the State of Sao Paolo. They are also one of many species to live in the great global diversity hotspot of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest.
