| Hyperolius nitidulus | |
|---|---|
Scientific classification  | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Amphibia |
| Order: | Anura |
| Family: | Hyperoliidae |
| Genus: | Hyperolius |
| Species: | H. nitidulus |
| Binomial name | |
| Hyperolius nitidulus Peters, 1875 | |
Hyperolius nitidulus is a species of frog from the family Hyperoliidae. It is found on the West African savannas between Guinea and Mali in the west and Nigeria and Cameroon in the east. [1] [2] Common name plain reed frog has been coined for it. [1]
Hyperolius nitidulus are medium-sized reed frogs with a rather blunt snout. Males vary is size between 23–29 mm (0.91–1.14 in) and on average weight about one gram. [3] Females are larger and heavier than males, their body size can vary between 24–32 mm (0.94–1.26 in) with an average weight of about two grams before laying eggs. [4] This species has a large choana, which is not hidden beneath edge of mandible like in most Hyperolius species. [5] They have a relatively large tongue which is broad and shaped like a heart. Their dorsal view is roundish and sometimes a bit pointy. [5] From a lateral view their body is flattened but some have a round truncate. The position of the naris is slightly close to snout tip than to the eye. Skin is laterally smooth and with small warts. [5] Body is slender and half cylindrical with thin limbs. They have extra skin folds that are used to hide their feet while aestivating during dry conditions. Fingers and toes have circummarginal discs. [3] Males have a median subgular vocal sac which is used for calling. [6]
During their juvenile stage their color is beige with a darker lightly flanked stripe at the side from snout to vent. As an adult they exhibit metachrosis (change in color), this color change is based on many factors such temperature, humidity. [7] During the night the uniformly color is beige and during the day the color can vary between yellow and orange with spots. [5] During the dry season the juveniles become white as they aestivate the skin in the inside of their limbs becomes red due to the underlying capillary network.
Adults are insectivores, usually consuming taxa such as Drosophila , Musca , Phormia , Lucilia , and Calliphora . [4]
Breeding normally occurs during wet season, that is May–October. [6] [7] During mating season males will migrate to temporary ponds and at times stay there and wander between ponds. Males on average stay for several days or even weeks, while females only visit the ponds only for oviposition. While in the ponds males begin calling between dusk and midnight. [6] [7] Males have two distinct calls; one call is used for mating to attract females, and the second call is used as a territorial call. Mating call is fairly short metallic that can last from 0.16 to 0.24 seconds with an average frequency of 2.04–3.43 Kilohertz; the frequency varies depending on the size of the frog. Territorial call sounds like a “croak”; it is deeper than the mating call and lasts for a longer period of time. On average each calls can last from 0.28 to 0.36 seconds with a frequency of 0.98–2.0 Kilohertz. [4] [6] Males tend to become aggressive when defending their small calling territories. [6]
The female deposits her eggs in the water, attaching the clutch underwater where there is vegetation at the bottom of the pond. [6] Females have the ability to lay 94–800 eggs per clutch. [8] Females are able to produce several clutches during one mating season. Nonetheless, clutch size will decrease when multiple clutches are laid. [8] There is no parental care. Eggs are white with a dark brown animal pole. [6]
Two to fives days after the egg were laid the embryos start to hatch as are free-swimming tadpoles. [6] The tadpole development may take longer because it is dependent on water temperature. Free-living larvae stay in the vegetation areas at the edge of the pond and feed of algae. [4] [7] During this period the larvae are at high risk of many predators such as dragonfly and beetle larvae, turtles, and most fish. The tadpole stage lasts six to eight weeks, before the tadpoles metamorphose. For the frog to mature completely it requires about two months. [8]
Hyperolius nitidulus inhabit margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in savanna, grassland and bushland habitats. It is a very adaptable species that also occurs in many human-modified areas, such as cultivated land, towns, and gardens. [1]
Hyperolius nitidulus live in an environment with a wet season that can be cold and humid, and an extremely hot and dry season. [3] [5] During the hot and dry season the frog is dependent on water therefore it has special adaptations to survive the extreme climate. Hyperolius nitidulus is known for its unique aestivation behavior during the hot and dry season. During dry season Hyperolius nitidulus do not seek shelter or hide, instead, they fully expose themselves to the sun by sitting on dry plants to reduce rapid water loss and can remain in this sitting position for months without food or water. [7] The juveniles only move when they are in serious danger. They sit with their legs held tightly to the body and feet hidden under their skin folds. [8] During this period, since there is no food or water intake, the juvenile frog does not urinate or defecate. The body stores all nitrogenous waste as urea in body fluids and purines. As the hot weather increases the dorsal skin of the frog becomes white due to the presence iridophores that can reflect light like a mirror since they are filled with purines crystals.
Juveniles are the only ones that survive a dry season because most adults cannot adapt to the changes in living condition and die. [1] [6] Juveniles born in the first 2/3 of the wet season have enough time to mature and reproduce in the same season. [3] These juveniles must mature quickly and use all their energy for growth and reproduction, which prevents them from preparing for the dry season that lies ahead; they will die when dry season begins due to the lack of energy. [4] Juveniles that are born in the last third of the wet season take their time maturing and prepare themselves for the dry season. These last juveniles do not reproduce, instead, they allocate all their resources to energy storage to be able to survive the dry season and hope to reproduce the following wet season. [5]
The common toad, European toad, or in Anglophone parts of Europe, simply the toad, is an amphibian found throughout most of Europe, in the western part of North Asia, and in a small portion of Northwest Africa. It is one of a group of closely related animals that are descended from a common ancestral line of toads and which form a species complex. The toad is an inconspicuous animal as it usually lies hidden during the day. It becomes active at dusk and spends the night hunting for the invertebrates on which it feeds. It moves with a slow, ungainly walk or short jumps, and has greyish-brown skin covered with wart-like lumps.
The common frog, also known as the European common frog, European common brown frog, European grass frog, European Holarctic true frog, European pond frog or European brown frog, is a semi-aquatic amphibian of the family Ranidae, found throughout much of Europe as far north as Scandinavia and as far east as the Urals, except for most of Iberia, Southern Italy, and the southern Balkans. The farthest west it can be found is Ireland. It is also found in Asia, and eastward to Japan.
The Hyperoliidae, or sedge frogs and bush frogs, are a large family of small to medium-sized, brightly colored frogs which contains more than 250 species in 19 genera. Seventeen genera are native to sub-Saharan Africa. In addition, the monotypic genus Tachycnemis occurs on the Seychelles Islands, and the genus Heterixalus is endemic to Madagascar.
Agalychnis callidryas, known as the red-eyed tree frog, is an arboreal hylid native to Neotropical rainforests where it ranges from Mexico, through Central America, to Colombia. It is sometimes kept in captivity. The scientific name of the red-eyed treefrog, A. callidryas, comes from the Greek words kalos (beautiful) and dryas.
The strawberry poison frog or strawberry poison-dart frog is a species of small poison dart frog found in Central America. It is common throughout its range, which extends from eastern central Nicaragua through Costa Rica and northwestern Panama. The species is often found in humid lowlands and premontane forest, but large populations are also found in disturbed areas such as plantations. The strawberry poison frog is perhaps most famous for its widespread variation in coloration, comprising approximately 15–30 color morphs, most of which are presumed to be true-breeding. O. pumilio, while not the most poisonous of the dendrobatids, is the most toxic member of its genus.
Hyperolius koehleri is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is known from southeastern Nigeria, southern Cameroon, and northern Gabon. It is likely to also be found in Equatorial Guinea and the adjacent Republic of the Congo. Common name Koehler's green frog has been coined for it.
Hyperolius bolifambae is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is known from southeastern Nigeria, southern Cameroon, and southwestern Central African Republic, with an isolated record in northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo ; the latter record may be considered doubtful. It likely has a broader range towards south and east than currently documented, and the AmphibiaWeb includes Gabon and the Republic of the Congo in the distribution.
Hyperolius concolor, also known as the variable reed frog or Hallowell's sedge frog, is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It occurs in West and Middle Africa.
Hyperolius fusciventris is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It occurs in West and Middle Africa between Sierra Leone in the west and western Cameroon in the east. Common name lime reed frog has been coined for this species.
Hyperolius kihangensis, also known as the Kihanga reed frog or volcano reed frog, is a species of frogs in the family Hyperoliidae. It is endemic to the Udzungwa Mountains in south-central Tanzania.
Hyperolius mitchelli is a species of frogs in the family Hyperoliidae. It is found in the area between northeastern Tanzania, Malawi, and central Mozambique.
Hyperolius molleri is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is endemic to São Tomé Island. Records from Príncipe now refer to Hyperolius drewesi, described as a distinct species in 2016.
Hyperolius pusillus is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is found throughout diverse environments in eastern and southern Africa. It is a very common frog. Its natural habitats are open savanna, bush land and grassland. Breeding takes place in shallow pans, vleis, open swamps, and dams with floating vegetation such as water lilies.
Hyperolius sheldricki is a species of small frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is endemic to southeast Kenya. The type locality is in the Tsavo East National Park.
Hyperolius swynnertoni is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is found in the southern portion of the eastern Zimbabwe uplands and adjacent Mozambique. It is also known as the Swynnerton's reed frog, with the subspecies "broadleyi" as the Broadley's tree frog or Broadley's forest treefrog.
Hyperolius sylvaticus is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is found in southern Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, and western Cameroon, with a gap in Benin. It is also likely to occur in Liberia. Common name Bobiri reed frog has been coined for this species.
The common reed frog is a species of tree frogs in the family Hyperoliidae found in Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda, and possibly the Central African Republic, Chad, and Eritrea. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forest, subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest, subtropical or tropical moist montane forest, dry savanna, moist savanna, subtropical or tropical dry shrubland, subtropical or tropical moist shrubland, subtropical or tropical seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland, subtropical or tropical high-altitude grassland, rivers, swamps, freshwater lakes, intermittent freshwater lakes, freshwater marshes, intermittent freshwater marshes, freshwater springs, arable land, pastureland, rural gardens, urban areas, heavily degraded former forests, water storage areas, ponds, irrigated land, seasonally flooded agricultural land, and canals and ditches.
Hyperolius wermuthi is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is found in Ivory Coast, southern Guinea, and Liberia. The correct name for this species is likely Hyperolius soror. It is so similar to Hyperolius fusciventris that it has likely been overlooked elsewhere in West Africa. Common name Wermuth's reed frog has been coined for this species.
The smoky jungle frog is a species of frog in the family Leptodactylidae. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Costa Rica, Panama, French Guiana, and Peru. Its natural habitats are tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, subtropical or tropical swamps, subtropical or tropical moist montane forest, rivers, freshwater marshes, intermittent freshwater marshes, and aquaculture ponds.
The African bullfrog is a species of frog in the family Pyxicephalidae. It is also known as the pixie frog due to its scientific name. It is found in Angola, Botswana, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and possibly the Democratic Republic of the Congo; it has been extirpated from Eswatini. It has long been confused with the edible bullfrog and species boundaries between them, including exact range limits, are not fully understood. Additionally, P. angusticeps of coastal East Africa only was revalidated as a separate species in 2013.
