LGBT adoption and parenting in Australia

Last updated

Law in Australia with regard to children is often based on what is considered to be in the best interest of the child. The traditional and often used assumption is that children need both a mother and a father, which plays an important role in divorce and custodial proceedings, and has carried over into adoption and fertility procedures. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] As of April 2018 all Australian states and territories allow adoption by same-sex couples. [6]

Contents

Overview

Same-sex couple joint petitionLGBT individual adoptionSame-sex stepparent adoption
New South Wales and Norfolk Island Yes check.svg Yes (since 2010) [7] Yes check.svg Yes (since 2000) [8] Yes check.svg Yes (since 2010)
ACT Yes check.svg Yes (since 2004) Yes check.svg Yes (since 1993) [9] Yes check.svg Yes (since 2004)
Western Australia Yes check.svg Yes (since 2002) Yes check.svg Yes [10] Yes check.svg Yes (since 2002)
Tasmania Yes check.svg Yes (since 2013) Yes check.svg Yes [11] Yes check.svg Yes (since 2004)
Victoria Yes check.svg Yes (since 2016) Yes check.svg Yes [12] Yes check.svg Yes (since 2007)
Queensland Yes check.svg Yes (since 2016) Yes check.svg Yes (since 2016) Yes check.svg Yes (since 2016)
South Australia Yes check.svg Yes (since 2017) Yes check.svg Yes (since 2017) [nb 1] Yes check.svg Yes (since 2017)
Northern Territory Yes check.svg Yes (since 2018) [13] Only in exceptional circumstances [14] Yes check.svg Yes (since 2018) [13]

Legislative progress

Since April 2018, adoption by same-sex couples is legally available in all jurisdictions of Australia.

South Australia, introduced a bill to the South Australian Parliament that allows same-sex couples to adopt children in September 2016 and which passed the Parliament in December 2016. [15] That bill received Royal Assent a week later and took effect in February 2017. [16] [17]

In Queensland, same-sex couples have been legally allowed to adopt since passage of a law in November 2016. [18] [19] Single LGBT people may adopt in some states, but individuals seeking to adopt are considered less of a priority than couples and lengthy waiting lists for adoption make it virtually impossible. Individuals may usually only adopt a child with special needs or in cases of exceptional circumstances.

Western Australia became the first Australian state to allow same-sex adoptions when its Labor government passed the Acts Amendment (Lesbian and Gay Law Reform) Act 2002 which in turn amended the Adoption Act 1994 (WA). This allowed same-sex couples to adopt in accordance with criteria that assesses the suitability of couples and individuals to be parents, regardless of sexual orientation.

Australia's first legal gay adoption, by two men, occurred in Western Australia in June 2007. [20] [21] [22] [23] Subsequently, on 2 August 2007, the federal government under Prime Minister John Howard announced it would legislate to stop same-sex couples adopting a child from overseas, and would further not recognise adopted children of same-sex couples. The federal Coalition's proposed Family Law (Same Sex Adoption) Bill would amend the Family Law Act 1975 and override state and territory laws that currently cover international adoptions. The bill was due to be introduced in the spring 2007 session of parliament, but has been taken off the agenda following the 2007 federal election. [24] [25]

In July 2009 the NSW Law and Justice Committee decided that the Adoption Act 2000 should be amended to allow same-sex couples the right to adopt. Committee chair Christine Robertson said, "The committee has concluded that reform to allow same-sex couples to adopt will help to ensure that the best interests of children are met by our adoption laws and all recommendations were implemented in 2010." [26]

Same-sex step-parent adoption

Where joint adoption of children by same-sex couples is legal, so too is step-parent adoption. In all jurisdictions within Australia, a lesbian co-mother or gay co-father may use stepparent adoption provisions, although female couples in those states whose children were born through assisted conception may not actually need to adopt them, as the law there presumes the mother's female partner to be a legal parent as long as she consented to the conception. [27] [28] [29] As of 2017, all states and territories, allow both same-sex partners to have a legally recognised relationship with their child - except Western Australia within surrogacy.

However, even those laws contain a general presumption against making an adoption order because an adoption order severs the legal relationship between the child and one of the child's birth parents. Due to the serious consequences of an adoption order, all step-parent adoption laws (including those applying to opposite-sex couples) contain a strong preference for dealing with new parenting arrangements through a parenting order rather than an adoption order.

Alternately, the lesbian co-mother or gay co-father of a child may apply to the Family Court of Australia for a parenting order, as 'other people significant to the care, welfare and development' of the child. It provides an important "status quo" if the birth mother were to die, preventing other family members from taking immediate custody of the child. [30]

The Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) issued a report in 2007 entitled National Inquiry into Discrimination against People in Same-Sex Relationships recommended amending or creating laws recognising the relationship between a child and both same-sex parents. In particular, "'Stepparent adoption' laws should more readily consider adoption by a lesbian co-mother or gay co-father. This will require amendments to remove the prohibition on same-sex stepparent adoption in all state and territory laws other than in WA, the ACT and Tasmania." The final report of the Same-Sex: Same Entitlements Inquiry was tabled in Parliament on 21 June 2007. [31]

Assisted reproduction and surrogacy

Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) and surrogacy comes under the jurisdiction of states and territories in Australia so national legislation cannot be used to no its practice. ART services (which include but are not limited to In Vitro Fertilization and artificial insemination) and other reproductive technologies are legal in all states and territories (see LGBT rights in Australia for more). Western Australia is the only state that bans altruistic surrogacy for singles and same-sex couples.

Commercial surrogacy and related advertising remains illegal in all of Australia, regardless. Altruistic surrogacy, where the surrogate receives no financial reward for her pregnancy or the relinquishment of the child, is legal in all of Australia, though in Western Australia it is reserved for opposite-sex couples only. South Australia and the Northern Territory recently legally allowed same-sex couples the right to altruistic surrogacy arrangements by legislation (see LGBT rights in South Australia for more). With altruistic surrogacy, only expenses related to the pregnancy and birth are paid by the intended parents such as medical expenses, maternity clothing, and other related expenses.

The practice of altruistic surrogacy for same-sex couples and single people remains illegal only in Western Australia. [32] It is believed that only 1 in 20 surrogacy arrangements take place in Australia; almost all involving foreign surrogates from South-East Asia and the United States. [32] In Tasmania, until 30 April 2012 then the Surrogacy Contracts Act 1993 is then repealed and replaced on 1 May 2013 with the Surrogacy Act 2012 becoming effective to allow altruistic surrogacy for all singles and couples of all genders. [33] In Queensland where the newly elected state Liberal National Party government who won the Queensland state election in March 2012 with a massive super-majority, has announced that they will re-criminalise altruistic surrogacy for singles, same-sex couples and opposite-sex couples who have been in a de facto relationship for less than 2 years. [34] In November 2006, Attorneys-Generals from all states and territories agreed in principle to uniform surrogacy regulations which meant couples would no longer have to travel to avoid illegal arrangements in their home state after Victorian Senator Stephen Conroy and his wife, Paula Benson, revealed that their daughter Isabella had been born to a surrogate mother in Sydney via the in-vitro fertilisation of a donated egg. [35] [36] [37] In April 2007, Federal Attorney-General Philip Ruddock called for national surrogacy laws, so couples in some states no longer have to travel elsewhere to undergo the procedure legally. [38]

Obtaining legal parental rights for same sex partners of birth parents has only recently been addressed in limited ways. All states and territories recognise female co-mothers as birth parents of children conceived through in vitro fertilisation or artificial insemination. Male couples who arrange altruistic surrogacy (since commercial surrogacy is illegal) using one partner's sperm, which may be legally possible in the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, Tasmania, [33] Queensland, Victoria and South Australia, will face legal difficulties gaining rights for the genetic father as a 'sperm donor', and terminating the surrogate mother's rights (ideally through a stepparent adoption), which will be required in order to obtain legal recognition for the non-biological male partner. A growing number of male couples from around the world are attempting to become parents through surrogacy in America due to its favourable laws. [39] However, it is a criminal offence for a person ordinarily resident in Queensland, New South Wales or the ACT to enter into a commercial surrogacy arrangement anywhere in the world.

ART/IVF for surrogates of male couplesART/IVF for lesbian couplesCommercial surrogacyAltruistic surrogacyAutomatically recognise non-genetic parent at birth
Queensland Yes check.svg Yes Yes check.svg Legal X mark.svg Illegal Yes check.svg Legal Yes check.svg Yes (for all couples)
ACT Yes check.svg Yes Yes check.svg Legal X mark.svg Illegal Yes check.svg Legal Yes check.svg Yes (for all couples)
Tasmania Yes check.svg Yes [33] Yes check.svg Legal X mark.svg Illegal Yes check.svg Legal [33] Yes check.svg Yes (for all couples) [33]
Victoria Yes check.svg Yes Yes check.svg Legal X mark.svg Illegal Yes check.svg Legal Yes check.svg Yes (for all couples)
New South Wales and Norfolk Island Yes check.svg Yes Yes check.svg Legal X mark.svg Illegal Yes check.svg Legal Yes check.svg Yes (for all couples)
South Australia Yes check.svg Yes Yes check.svg Legal X mark.svg Illegal Yes check.svg Legal Yes check.svg Yes (for all couples)
Northern Territory Yes check.svg Yes Yes check.svg Legal X mark.svg Illegal Yes check.svg Legal Yes check.svg Yes (for all couples)
Western Australia X mark.svg Illegal Yes check.svg Legal X mark.svg Illegal X mark.svg Illegal (banned for singles and same sex couples; bill pending to remove ban); [40] Yes check.svg Legal (for heterosexual couples who are married or in a de facto relationship) [41] Yes check.svg Yes (for all couples), X mark.svg No (male couples)

ACT

The Parentage Act 2004 made non-commercial surrogacy legal but the birth mother and her husband were deemed to be the parents unless the genetic parents adopt the child back. In 2000, The ACT became the first state or territory to allow the genetic parents who are heterosexual of a child born through surrogacy to become its legal parents, allowing them to easily obtain a parenting order and avoid adoption. [42] [43] It is illegal to advertise for a surrogate and to pay for a surrogate or an ovum donor. When two women are in a same-sex relationship, and one of them gives birth as a result of ART, her partner is presumed to be a parent of the child. The ACT's birth registration process allows for a person to be registered as a 'mother', 'father' or 'parent', enabling lesbian couples to be recognised as parents on a child's birth documents.

New South Wales

Northern Territory

The Northern Territory was the second jurisdiction to extend a presumption of parentage to lesbian partners in 2003 with its Status of Children Act 2003, following Western Australia's lead in 2002. [44] [45] The Northern Territory became the last jurisdiction within Australia to legally allow both unmarried different-sex couples and same-sex couples to adopt children, when the Adoption of Children Legislation Amendment (Equality) Bill 2017 passed the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly in March 2018. The bill received royal assent on 19 April 2018, becoming the Adoption of Children Legislation Amendment (Equality) Act 2018 and commenced the following day. [46]

Queensland

South Australia

Tasmania

The Status of Children Act 1974 states that the woman who gives birth to the child is the mother, regardless of genetics. The Act does make a mention of "parentage" of both co-mothers in section 10C, however a report back in 2003 by the Joint Standing Committee on Community Development proposed amending the Act to recognise the lesbian partner as a parent via the Relationships (Consequential Amendments) Bill 2003 but it failed to pass in the upper house by just one vote. [47] In June 2009, the Relationships (Miscellaneous Amendments) Bill proposed reform to the state's Adoption Act and Status of Children Act, allowing non-biological lesbian parents to be legally considered the parents of a child conceived using IVF. [48] The bill passed the lower house 45–3 on 20 August, opposed by three Liberal MHA's who had been given a conscience vote. The Legislative Council (Upper House) ratified the bill with amendments to back date the law to 1 January 2004 in October without dissent. [49] The lower house approved of the amendments made in the upper house in November 2009 and then passed the Tasmanian parliament. [50]

In 2012, Tasmania passed two pieces of legislation to legally allow altruistic surrogacy. The two laws are called the Surrogacy Act No 34 and the Surrogacy (Consequential Amendments) Act No 31. [33] [51] Proposed altruistic surrogacy legislation was drafted and passed by both houses of the Tasmanian parliament – only after a review of the Surrogacy Contracts Act 1993 No 4 [52] [53] and after an ongoing community consultation process. Under the altruistic surrogacy legislation, the surrogate must be at least 25 years old and it cannot be her first pregnancy. The new altruistic surrogacy laws went into effect on 1 May 2013. [33]

Victoria

Western Australia

The Human Reproductive Technology Act 1991 (WA) established that to use any ART, a woman must be unable to conceive a child for medical reasons (clinical infertility) and "persons seeking to be treated as a couple must be married or in a de facto relationship and must be of the opposite sex to each other". [54]

In 2002, the Artificial Conception Act 1985 was amended to deal with lesbian couples. It stated that, where a woman who is in a de facto relationship with another woman undergoes, with the consent of her de facto partner, an artificial fertilisation procedure, the de facto partner of the pregnant woman is conclusively presumed to be a parent of the unborn child and is a parent of any child born as a result of the pregnancy. [55]

Western Australia's Registry of Births, Deaths and Marriages allows for registration of a parent other than a 'mother' and/or 'father' on the birth documents of the child. The birth registration form provides same-sex couples with the option of describing themselves as 'mother' and 'parent'; 'mother' and 'mother'; or 'parent' and 'parent'. Provided proper consent has been given by both the woman and her same-sex partner, the partner will conclusively be presumed to be the parent of any resulting child.

The Surrogacy Bill 2007 was passed by the Legislative Assembly (Lower House) in September 2007, and was referred to the Standing Committee on Legislation within the Legislative Council (Upper House) in November 2007. It was sent back to the Legislative Council (with amendments to ban single people and same-sex couples from altruistic surrogacy arrangements) for a third reading in June 2008. The legislation was passed on 4 December 2008. [56] [57]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The laws regarding single persons (LGBT and non-LGBT) and adoption are more restrictive than other states. In South Australia, single people can have an adoption order granted where "the Court is satisfied that there are special circumstances justifying the making of the order". See LGBT rights in South Australia#Same-sex adoption for more.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in the Republic of Ireland</span>

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) rights in the Republic of Ireland are regarded as some of the most progressive in Europe and the world. Ireland is notable for its transformation from a country holding overwhelmingly conservative attitudes toward LGBT issues, in part due to the opposition by the Roman Catholic Church, to one holding overwhelmingly liberal views in the space of a generation. In May 2015, Ireland became the first country to legalise same-sex marriage on a national level by popular vote. The New York Times declared that the result put Ireland at the "vanguard of social change". Since July 2015, transgender people in Ireland can self-declare their gender for the purpose of updating passports, driving licences, obtaining new birth certificates, and getting married. Both male and female expressions of homosexuality were decriminalised in 1993, and most forms of discrimination based on sexual orientation are now outlawed. Ireland also forbids incitement to hatred based on sexual orientation. Article 41 of the Constitution of Ireland explicitly protects the right to marriage irrespective of sex.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in Australia</span>

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) rights in Australia rank among the highest in the world; having significantly advanced over the latter half of the 20th century and early 21st century. Opinion polls and the Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey indicate widespread popular support for same-sex marriage within the nation. A 2013 Pew Research poll found that 79% of Australians agreed that homosexuality should be accepted by society, making it the fifth-most supportive country surveyed in the world. With its long history of LGBT activism and annual Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras festival, Sydney has been named one of the most gay-friendly cities in the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ian Hunter (politician)</span> Australian politician

Ian Keith Hunter is an Australian politician, representing the South Australian Branch of the Australian Labor Party in the South Australian Legislative Council since the 2006 state election. Hunter served in the Cabinet of South Australia from October 2011 to 2018.

Tasmania's Relationships Act 2003 provided for registration and recognition of a type of registered partnership in two distinct categories: Significant Relationships and Caring Relationships. The same Act also amended 73 pieces of legislation to provide registered partners with nearly all of the rights offered to married couples within the state. Furthermore, since July 2009, these relationships are recognised at federal level, providing couples with almost all of the federal rights and benefits of marriage. The legislation came into effect on 1 January 2004. In September 2010, the Parliament of Tasmania approved legislation to recognize same-sex unions performed outside Tasmania as significant relationships.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in Gibraltar</span>

Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) rights have evolved significantly in the past decades in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. Same-sex sexual activity has been legal since 1993 and the age of consent was equalised to 16 in 2012. The Supreme Court of Gibraltar ruled in April 2013 that same-sex couples have the right to adopt. Civil partnerships have been available to both same-sex and opposite-sex couples since March 2014, and in October 2016, Gibraltar voted to legalise same-sex marriage with the Civil Marriage Amendment Act 2016 passing unanimously in Parliament. The law received royal assent on 1 November and took effect on 15 December 2016.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in Scotland</span>

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) rights in Scotland are generally in line with the rest of the United Kingdom, which have evolved extensively over time and are now regarded as some of the most progressive in Europe. In both 2015 and 2016, Scotland was recognised as the "best country in Europe for LGBTI legal equality".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in Queensland</span>

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) rights in Queensland have advanced significantly from the late 20th century onwards, in line with progress on LGBT rights in Australia nationally. 2019 polling on gay rights consistently showed that even in regional areas, Queensland is no more conservative about the subject than any other states.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in New South Wales</span> Human rights in Australia

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in the Australian state of New South Wales have most of the same rights and responsibilities as non-LGBT people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in Victoria</span>

The Australian state of Victoria is regarded as one of the country's most progressive jurisdictions with respect to the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in South Australia</span>

The rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in the Australian state of South Australia are advanced and well-established. South Australia has had a chequered history with respect to the rights of LGBT people. Initially, the state was a national pioneer of LGBT rights in Australia, being the first in the country to decriminalise homosexuality and to introduce a non-discriminatory age of consent for all sexual activity. Subsequently, the state fell behind other Australian jurisdictions in areas including relationship recognition and parenting, with the most recent law reforms regarding the recognition of same-sex relationships, LGBT adoption and strengthened anti-discrimination laws passed in 2016 and went into effect in 2017.

Surrogacy in India and Indian surrogates became increasingly popular amongst intended parents in industrialised nations because of the relatively low costs and easy access offered by Indian surrogacy agencies. Clinics charged patients between $10,000 and $28,000 for the complete package, including fertilization, the surrogate's fee, and delivery of the baby at a hospital. Including the costs of flight tickets, medical procedures and hotels, this represented roughly a third of the price of the procedure in the UK and a fifth of that in the US. Surrogate mothers received medical, nutritional and overall health care through surrogacy agreements.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in Vermont</span>

The establishment of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) rights in the U.S. state of Vermont is a recent occurrence, with most progress having taken place in the late 20th and the early 21st centuries. Vermont was one of 37 U.S. states, along with the District of Columbia, that issued marriage licenses to same-sex couples until the landmark Supreme Court ruling of Obergefell v. Hodges, establishing equal marriage rights for same-sex couples nationwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Surrogacy laws by country</span>

The legal aspects of surrogacy in any particular jurisdiction tend to hinge on a few central questions:

Until 2017, laws related to LGBTQ+ couples adopting children varied by state. Some states granted full adoption rights to same-sex couples, while others banned same-sex adoption or only allowed one partner in a same-sex relationship to adopt the biological child of the other.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in Tasmania</span>

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in the Australian state of Tasmania have the same legal rights as non-LGBT people. Tasmania has a transformative history with respect to the rights of LGBT people. Initially dubbed "Bigots' Island" by international media due to intense social and political hostility to LGBT rights up until the late 1990s, the state has subsequently been recognised for LGBT law reforms that have been described by activists such as Rodney Croome as among the most extensive and noteworthy in the world. Tasmania's criminal penalties for homosexual activity were the harshest in the Western world when they were repealed in 1997. It was the last Australian jurisdiction to decriminalise homosexuality after a United Nations Human Rights Committee ruling, the passage of federal sexual privacy legislation and a High Court challenge to the state's anti-homosexuality laws. Following decriminalisation, social and political attitudes in the state rapidly shifted in favour of LGBT rights ahead of national trends with strong anti-LGBT discrimination laws passed in 1999, and the first state relationship registration scheme to include same-sex couples introduced in 2003. In 2019, Tasmania passed and implemented the world's most progressive gender-optional birth certificate laws. In July 2023, the Tasmanian government officially included and also added "asexual or asexuality".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in Western Australia</span>

Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) rights in Western Australia have seen significant progress since the beginning of the 21st century, with male sex acts legal since 1990 and the state parliament passing comprehensive law reforms in 2002. The state decriminalised male homosexual acts in 1990 and was the first to grant full adoption rights to LGBT couples in 2002.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in the Northern Territory</span>

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in Australia's Northern Territory have the same legal rights as non-LGBT people. The liberalisation of the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people in Australia's Northern Territory has been a gradual process. Homosexual activity was legalised in 1983, with an equal age of consent since 2003. Same-sex couples are recognised as de facto relationships. There was no local civil union or domestic partnership registration scheme before the introduction of nationwide same-sex marriage in December 2017, following the passage of the Marriage Amendment Act 2017 by the Australian Parliament. The 2017 Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey, designed to gauge public support for same-sex marriage in Australia, returned a 60.6% "Yes" response in the territory. LGBT people are protected from discrimination by both territory and federal law, though the territory's hate crime law does not cover sexual orientation or gender identity. The territory was the last jurisdiction in Australia to legally allow same-sex couples to adopt children.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in the Australian Capital Territory</span>

The Australian Capital Territory (ACT) is one of Australia's leading jurisdictions with respect to the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people. The ACT has made a number of reforms to territory law designed to prevent discrimination of LGBT people; it was the only state or territory jurisdiction in Australia to pass a law for same-sex marriage, which was later overturned by the High Court of Australia. The Australian Capital Territory, Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland are the only jurisdictions within Australia to legally ban conversion therapy on children. The ACT's laws also apply to the smaller Jervis Bay Territory.

LGBT parents in Canada have undergone significant progress in terms of both legal and social acceptance. Same-sex couples who wish for parenthood now enjoy equally the possibilities, responsibilities and rights of opposite-sex couples. Following the nationwide legalization of same-sex marriage in 2005, the number of LGBT families in Canada has increased substantially, paving the way for same-sex couples' aspirations of having their own children. Legal methods of assisted reproduction range from insemination via IVF through to surrogacy arrangements.

Surrogacy is legal in New Zealand if it is performed altruistically, where the surrogate donates her services selflessly, without any compensation beyond the coverage of expenses. Commercial surrogacy, where the surrogate is paid in addition to the coverage of expenses, is not legal. There is a lack of specific legislation and regulations dealing with surrogacy, though the recent increase in surrogacy cases has led to a number of amendments. New Zealand is party to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, and ratified it in April 1993. The primary principle of this convention is that the best interests of the child are paramount, which must then encompass all surrogacy agreements and regulations. The lack of clear surrogacy legislation in New Zealand has led to many couples engaging in reproductive tourism in order to ensure the surrogacy is successful. This has the potential to significantly impact the human rights of all of the parties involved.

References

  1. ↑ "Microsoft Word – APA California Amicus Brief – As Filed.DOC" (PDF). Retrieved 20 January 2011.
  2. ↑ Canadian Psychological Association: Brief presented to the Legislative House of Commons Committee on Bill C38 By the Canadian Psychological Association 2 June 2005. Archived 13 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  3. ↑ Short, Elizabeth; Damien W. Riggs; Amaryll Perlesz; Rhonda Brown; Graeme Kane (August 2007). "Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) Parented Families – A Literature Review prepared for The Australian Psychological Society" (PDF). The Australian Psychological Society. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
  4. ↑ "Children's Development of Social Competence Across Family Types" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 September 2015. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
  5. ↑ Michael Lamb, PhD: Affidavit – United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts (2009) Archived 25 January 2010 at WebCite
  6. ↑ "Australia now has adoption equality". Human Rights Law Centre. 20 April 2018.
  7. ↑ "Australian state votes for adoption by same-sex couples". The Hindu. India. Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 2 September 2010. Retrieved 2 September 2010.
  8. ↑ "ADOPTION ACT 2000". Austlii.edu.au. 1 January 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
  9. ↑ "ADOPTION ACT 1993". Austlii.edu.au. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
  10. ↑ "ADOPTION ACT 1994". Austlii.edu.au. 5 March 2010. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
  11. ↑ "Adoption Act 1988 (Tas) – Sect 20. Persons in whose favour adoption orders may be made". Austlii. Retrieved 1 May 2008.
  12. ↑ "Adoption Act 1984 – SECT 11". Austlii. Retrieved 1 May 2008.
  13. 1 2 "Legislation Database". legislation.nt.gov.au. Retrieved 13 March 2018.
  14. ↑ "Adoption of Children Act (NT)". Austlii. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 1 May 2008.
  15. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20190412202413/https://www.legislation.sa.gov.au/LZ/B/CURRENT/ADOPTION%20(REVIEW)%20AMENDMENT%20BILL%202016/B_AS%20INTRODUCED%20IN%20HA/ADOPTION%20REVIEW%20AMENDMENT%20BILL%202016.UN.PDF. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 7 November 2016.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  16. ↑ "Adoption (Review) Amendment Act (Commencement) Proclamation 2017" (PDF). Legislation.sa.gov.au. 17 February 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 17 February 2017.
  17. ↑ "Adoption equality now a reality for South Australians". Human Rights Law Centre. 17 February 2017. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017.
  18. ↑ Gail Burke (3 November 2016). "Adoption laws in Queensland changed to allow same-sex couples to become parents". Australia: ABC News.
  19. ↑ "Same sex couples". Legal Aid Queensland. Archived from the original on 25 May 2008. Retrieved 1 May 2008.
  20. ↑ "Gay adoption 'groundbreaking'". PerthNow. 12 June 2007. Archived from the original on 3 April 2008. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
  21. ↑ "First Legal Gay Adoption in Australia". SameSame.com.au. Archived from the original on 10 February 2008. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
  22. ↑ "Australia's First Legal Adoption For Gay Couple". efluxmedia. Archived from the original on 21 June 2008. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
  23. ↑ "Australia's First Gay Adoption". ProudParenting.com. Archived from the original on 8 February 2008. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
  24. ↑ "Green Left – Stop the proposed same-sex adoption ban". Green Left. Archived from the original on 18 February 2008. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
  25. ↑ "Gay couples face overseas adoption ban". The Sydney Morning Herald. 2 August 2007. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
  26. ↑ "Adoption Inquiry Backs Same-Sex Couples". SSO Net. 9 July 2009. Retrieved 15 May 2008.
  27. ↑ "Is second parent adoption possible in Australia?". Gay & Lesbian Rights Lobby. Archived from the original on 19 July 2008. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
  28. ↑ "Same-sex parenting". PHD Blog It. 5 January 2006. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
  29. ↑ Grattan, Michelle (27 April 2004). "Gay adoption law to stay". The Age. Melbourne, Australia. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
  30. ↑ "Same Sex, Same Entitlements". Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
  31. ↑ "Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission". Hreoc.gov.au. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
  32. 1 2 "Two dads and a surrogate create legal landmark".
  33. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Numerical Table of the Acts of Parliament 2012". Tasmania Department of Premier and Cabinet. 27 February 2013. Archived from the original on 24 April 2013. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
  34. ↑ "Gays face surrogacy ban as LNP pushes civil union changes". Brisbane Times. 22 June 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
  35. ↑ "Desperate plea for end to secret trade in human eggs". The Sydney Morning Herald. 12 November 2006. Retrieved 14 May 2008.
  36. ↑ "Church (3 February 2006)". The Age. Melbourne, Australia. Retrieved 14 May 2008.
  37. ↑ "Surrogacy laws too varied, Ruddock tells states". The Sydney Morning Herald. 8 November 2006. Retrieved 14 May 2008.
  38. ↑ MacNamara, Lisa (7 April 2007). "Call for uniform surrogacy laws". The Australian. Archived from the original on 14 September 2012. Retrieved 14 May 2008.
  39. ↑ "Surrogate mothers fulfilling gay men's parenthood dreams". The Sydney Morning Herald. 7 May 2008. Archived from the original on 14 July 2012. Retrieved 14 May 2008.
  40. ↑ "Progress of Bills". www.parliament.wa.gov.au.
  41. ↑ "Surrogacy Act".
  42. ↑ "Parentage Act 2004" (PDF). Retrieved 20 January 2011.
  43. ↑ "ACT approves surrogacy bill". ABC. Retrieved 14 May 2008.
  44. ↑ Millbank, Jenni (2 April 2008). "One state, one mother". SX News. Archived from the original on 11 August 2008. Retrieved 3 June 2008.
  45. ↑ "Status of Children Act". NT Department of Justice. 17 March 2004. Archived from the original on 31 August 2006. Retrieved 3 June 2008.
  46. ↑ "Legislation Database". legislation.nt.gov.au. Archived from the original on 21 April 2018.
  47. ↑ "Report on Amendments to the Relationships Bill 2003" (PDF). Joint Standing Committee on Community Development. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 April 2019. Retrieved 4 June 2008.
  48. ↑ Noonan, Andie (23 June 2009). "Tasmania to grant parental rights". Sydney Star Observer. Retrieved 3 September 2009.
  49. ↑ Hackney, Peter (2 November 2009). "Tasmania approves same-sex family law". MCV. Archived from the original on 8 November 2009. Retrieved 2 November 2009.
  50. ↑ "Parliament of Tasmania – Annual Register of Bills". Parliament.tas.gov.au. Archived from the original on 24 March 2019. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
  51. ↑ "Parliament passes landmark Surrogacy laws". Tasmania Department of Premier and Cabinet. 25 September 2012. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
  52. ↑ "Surrogacy Contracts Act 1993". Thelaw.tas.gov.au. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
  53. ↑ "SURROGACY CONTRACTS ACT 1993". Austlii.edu.au. 20 April 1993. Archived from the original on 8 February 2008. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
  54. ↑ "Human Reproductive Technology Act 1991 (WA)". Austlii. Retrieved 14 May 2008.
  55. ↑ "Artificial Conception Act 1985 – Section 6a. Rule relating to parentage – same sex de facto relationships". Austlii. Retrieved 14 May 2008.
  56. ↑ "Surrogacy Bill 2007". Parliament of Western Australia. Retrieved 6 December 2009.
  57. ↑ "Surrogacy Act 2008" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 May 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.