List of monuments damaged by conflict in the Middle East during the 21st century

Last updated April 13, 2024

This is a list of monuments suffering damage from conflict in the Middle East during the 21st century. It is sorted by country.

Egypt

The Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo is home to one of the world's most impressive collections of Islamic art. It includes over 100,000 pieces that cover the entirety of Islamic history. The Cairo site was first built in 1881 and underwent a multi-million dollar renovation between 2003 and 2010.

On January 24th, 2014 a car bomb attack targeting the Cairo police headquarters on the other side of the street caused considerable damage to the museum and destroyed many artifacts. It is estimated that 20-30% of the artifacts will need restoration. The blast also severely damaged the buildings facade, wiping out intricate designs in the Islamic style. The Egyptian National Library and Archives in the same building was also affected.^[1]^[2]^[3]

Iraq

Al-Askari Shrine was severely damaged in a bombing in 2006 by unknown, masked assailants which resulted in the complete destruction of its golden dome.^[4]

Dair Mar Elia, also known as Saint Elijah's monastery. The Christian monastery near Mosul was founded in the late 6th century, and its sanctuary was built in the 11th century. The monastery was damaged during the invasion of 2003, before being completely destroyed by ISIL in 2014.^[5]

Great Mosque of Samarra. Once the largest mosque in the world, built in the 9th century on the Tigris River north of Baghdad. The mosque is famous for Malwiya Tower, a 52-meter minaret with spiraling ramps for worshipers to climb. The site was bombed in 2005, in an insurgent attack on a NATO position, destroying the top of the minaret and surrounding walls.^[6]
Nimrud. The ancient Assyrian city around Nineveh Province, Iraq was home to countless treasures of the empire, including statues, monuments, and jewels. Following the 2003 invasion the site has been devastated by looting, with many of the stolen pieces finding homes in a museum abroad.^[6]
Tomb of Jonah. The purported resting place of the biblical prophet Jonah, along with a tooth by some believed to be from the whale that consumed him in the myth. The site dated to the 8th century BC, and was of great importance to Christian and Muslim faiths. It was entirely blown up by ISIL militants in 2014 as part of their campaign against perceived apostasy.^[6]

Lebanon

Old Beirut suffered through a brutal 15-year civil war, successive battles with Israel, and sweeping urban development. It is referred to as the "Paris of the Middle East" and is known for its impressive landscape Ottoman, French and Art Deco architecture. Officials report that just 400 of 1200 protected historic buildings remain.^[6]

Libya

Cyrene (Libya). A key city for the Greeks and Romans, established in 630 BC. Famed as the basis for enduring myths and legends, such as that of the huntress heroine of the same name and bride of Apollo. The ruins were some of the best preserved from that period.

In May 2011, a number of objects excavated from Cyrene in 1917 and held in the vault of the National Commercial Bank in Benghazi were stolen. Looters tunnelled into the vault and broke into two safes that held the artefacts which were part of the so-called 'Benghazi Treasure' . The whereabouts of these objects are currently unknown.^[7]

Parts of the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Cyrene were destroyed in August 2013 by locals to make way for homes and shops. Approximately 200 vaults and tombs were leveled, as well as a section of a viaduct dating to the third century BC. Artifacts were thrown into a nearby river.^[8]

Palestine

Al-Omari Mosque, Gaza. Ancient monument in the heart of Jabalya's old town that dates back to the Mamluk Era. The walls, dome and roof were destroyed by Israeli airstrikes during the 2015 fighting in Gaza, along with dozens more historic sites.^[6]According to tradition, the mosque stands on the site of the Philistine temple dedicated to Dagon—the god of fertility—which Samson toppled in the Book of Judges. Later, a temple dedicated to Marnas—god of rain and grain—was erected. Local legend today claims that Samson is buried under the present mosque. The mosque is well known for its minaret, which is square-shaped in its lower half and octagonal in its upper half, typical of Mamluk architectural style. The minaret is constructed of stone from the base to the upper, hanging balcony, including the four-tiered upper half. The pinnacle is mostly made of woodwork and tiles, and is frequently renewed. A simple cupola springs from the octagonal stone drum and is of light construction similar to most mosques in the Levant.^[9]

Syria

Armenian Genocide Memorial Church (Der Zor). Memorial site to the 1.5 million killed between 1915 and 1923, the Deir Ez-zor became a yearly destination for pilgrims from around the world. The site included a church, museum, and fire that burned continuously. On 21 September 2014, the memorial complex was blown up by militants of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.^[10]^[11]^[12]
The ancient city of Bosra. Continually inhabited for 2,500 years, and became the capital of the Romans' Arabian empire/ The centerpiece is a magnificent Roman theatre dating back to the second century that survived intact until the current century. Archeologists have revealed the site is now severely damaged from mortar shelling.^[6]

Citadel of Aleppo. The fortress spans at least four millennia, from the days of Alexander the Great, through Roman, Mongol, and Ottoman rule. The site has barely changed since the 16th century and is one of Syria's most popular World Heritage sites.^[6]

In August 2012, during the Battle of Aleppo of the Syrian civil war, the external gate of the citadel was damaged after being shelled during a clash between the Free Syrian Army and the Syrian Army to gain control over the citadel.^[13]

During the conflict, the Syrian Army used the Citadel as a military base, with the walls acting as cover while shelling surrounding areas and ancient arrow slits in walls being used by snipers to target rebels.^[14]^[15] As a result of this contemporary usage, the Citadel has received significant damage.

Al-Madina Souq. The covered markets in the Old City are a famous trade center for the region's finest produce, with dedicated sub-souks for fabrics, food, and accessories. The tunnels became the scene of fierce fighting and many of the oldest are now damaged beyond recognition. This was described by UNESCO as a tragedy.^[15]
Deir ez-Zor suspension bridge. This French-built suspension bridge was a popular pedestrian crossing and vantage point for its views of the Euphrates River. The bridge was destroyed by Free Syrian Army militiamen during the Syrian civil war in May 2013.^[16] Deir Ez-zor's Siyasiyeh Bridge was also destroyed.^[6]
Khalid ibn al-Walid Mosque. Among Syria's most famous Ottoman-style mosques, which also shows Mamluk influence through its light and dark contrasts. As of 2007, activities in the mosque were organized by shaykhs Haytham al-Sa'id and Ahmad Mithqan.^[17] Stamps depicting the mosque have been issued in several denominations.

The Khalid ibn al-Walid Mosque has been a symbol of anti-government rebels during the Syrian civil war.^[18] According to The New York Times , Syrian security forces killed 10 protesters participating in a funeral procession as they were leaving the mosque on 18 July 2011.^[19] The mosque, which the Syrian government stated had been turned by the rebels into an "arms and ammunition depot", was abandoned by the rebels on 27 July 2013.^[20] Shelling by government forces damaged Khalid's tomb inside the mosque. Following its capture by the Syrian Army, state media showed heavy damage inside the mosque, including some parts of it being burned, and the door to the tomb destroyed.^[18]

Krak des Chevaliers. The Crusader castle from the 11th century survived centuries of battles and natural disasters, becoming a World Heritage Site in 2006 along with the adjacent castle of Qal'at Salah El-Din.

During the Syrian Civil War which began in 2011 UNESCO voiced concerns that the conflict might lead to the damage of important cultural sites such as Krak des Chevaliers.^[21] It has been reported that the castle was shelled in August 2012 by the Syrian Arab Army, and the Crusader chapel has been damaged.^[22] The castle was reported to have been damaged in July 2013 by an airstrike during the Siege of Homs,^[23] and once more on the 18th of August 2013 it was clearly damaged yet the amount of destruction is unknown. The Syrian Arab Army recaptured the castle and the village of al-Hosn from rebel forces during the Battle of Hosn on March 20, 2014, although the extent of damage from earlier mortar hits remained unclear.^[24]

Palmyra. An "oasis in the Syrian desert" according to UNESCO, this Aramaic city has stood since the second millennium BC and featured some of the most advanced architecture of the period. The site subsequently evolved through Greco-Roman and Persian periods, providing unique historic insight into those cultures.

Monumental arch in the eastern section of Palmyra's colonnade

Palmyra's theater

As a result of the Syrian Civil War, Palmyra experienced widespread looting and damage by combatants.^[25] During the summer of 2012, concerns about looting in the museum and the site increased when an amateur video of Syrian soldiers carrying funerary stones was posted.^[26] However, according to France 24's report, "From the information gathered, it is impossible to determine whether pillaging was taking place."^[26] The following year the facade of the temple of Bel sustained a large hole from mortar fire, and colonnade columns have been damaged by shrapnel.^[25] According to Maamoun Abdulkarim, director of antiquities and museums at the Syrian Ministry of Culture, the Syrian Army positioned its troops in some archaeological-site areas,^[25] while Syrian opposition soldiers stationed themselves in gardens around the city.^[25]

On 13 May 2015, the ISIL launched an attack on the modern town, sparking fears that the iconoclastic group would destroy the site.^[27] On 21 May, ISIL forces entered the World Heritage Site.^[28] Local residents reported that the Syrian air force bombed the site on 13 June, damaging the northern wall next to the Temple of Baalshamin.^[29] The Temple of Baalshamin and the Temple of Bel were demolished by ISIL in August 2015.^[30]

The Great Mosque of Aleppo. A World Heritage Site originally built in 715 by the Umayyad dynasty, ranking it among the oldest mosques in the world. The epic structure evolved through successive eras, gaining its famous minaret in the late 11th century.^[6]

Mosque in 2013, after destruction of the minaret Umayyad-mosque-aleppo-2013.png — Mosque in 2013, after destruction of the minaret

On 13 October 2012 the mosque was seriously damaged during clashes between the armed groups of the Free Syrian Army and the Syrian Army forces. President Bashar al-Assad issued a presidential decree to form a committee to repair the mosque by the end of 2013.^[31]

The mosque was seized by rebel forces in early 2013, and, as of April 2013, is within an area of heavy fighting, with government force stationed 200 meters (660 ft) away.

On 24 April 2013 the minaret of the mosque was reduced to rubble during an exchange of heavy weapons fire between government forces and rebels during the ongoing Syrian civil war. The Syrian Arab News Agency (SANA) reported that members of Jabhat al-Nusra detonated explosives inside the minaret, while opposition activists said that the minaret was destroyed by Syrian Army tank fire as part of an offensive.^[32] Countering assertions by the state media of Jabhat al-Nusra's involvement, opposition sources described them as rebels from the Tawhid Brigades who were fighting government forces around the mosque.^[33] The opposition's main political bloc, the Syrian National Coalition (SNC), condemned the minaret's destruction, calling it "an indelible disgrace" and "a crime against human civilization."^[33]

Yemen

Sana'a old city. Yemen's capital city of Sana'a has been struck by suicide bombings (for which ISIL has claimed responsibility) and air-strikes by the Saudi-led coalition. These have affected the old fortified city—inscribed on UNESCO's World Heritage List since 1986—and the archaeological site of the pre-Islamic walled city of Baraqish, causing, according to UNESCO, "severe damage".

Related Research Articles

Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents as of 2021, it was Syria's largest city until its population was surpassed by Damascus, the largest in Syria's northern governorates and also one of the largest cities in the Levant region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Salamiyah</span> Place in Hama, Syria

Salamieh (Arabic: سلمية Salamieh) is a city and district in western Syria, in the Hama Governorate. It is located 33 kilometres southeast of Hama, 45 kilometres northeast of Homs. The city is nicknamed the "mother of Cairo" because it was the birthplace of the second Fatimid caliph al-Qa'im bi-Amr Allah, whose dynasty would eventually establish the city of Cairo, and the early headquarters of his father Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah who founded the Fatimid Caliphate. The city is an important center of the Shi'ite Nizari Isma'ili and Taiyabi Isma'ili Islamic schools and also the birthplace of poet Muhammad al-Maghut. The population of the city is 66,724.

The Temple of Bel, sometimes also referred to as the "Temple of Baal", was an ancient temple located in Palmyra, Syria. The temple, consecrated to the Mesopotamian god Bel, worshipped at Palmyra in triad with the lunar god Aglibol and the sun god Yarhibol, formed the center of religious life in Palmyra and was dedicated in AD 32. The temple would have been closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire in a campaign against the temples of the East made by Maternus Cynegius, Praetorian Prefect of Oriens, between 25 May 385 to 19 March 388. Its ruins were considered among the best preserved at Palmyra, until they were further destroyed by the Islamic State in August 2015. The arched main entrance into the temple is still intact, as well as its exterior walls and fortified gate.

Azaz is a city in northwest Syria, roughly 20 miles north-northwest of Aleppo. According to the Syria Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), Azaz had a population of 31,623 in the 2004 census. As of 2015, its inhabitants were almost entirely Sunni Muslims, mostly Arabs but also some Kurds and Turkmen.

The Citadel of Aleppo is a large medieval fortified palace in the centre of the old city of Aleppo, northern Syria. It is considered to be one of the oldest and largest castles in the world. Usage of the Citadel hill dates back at least to the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE. Occupied by many civilizations over time – including the Greeks, Armenians, Romans, Byzantines, Ayyubids, Mamluks and Ottomans – the majority of the construction as it stands today is thought to originate from the Ayyubid period. An extensive conservation work took place in the 2000s CE by the Aga Khan Trust for Culture, in collaboration with Aleppo Archeological Society. Dominating the city, the Citadel is part of the Ancient City of Aleppo, an UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1986 CE. During the 2010s, the Citadel received significant damage during the lengthy Battle of Aleppo. It was reopened to the public in early 2018 CE with repairs to damaged parts underway, though some of the damage will be purposefully preserved as part of the history of the citadel. The citadel was damaged by the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake.

Palmyra Castle, also known as Fakhr-al-Din al-Ma'ani Castle or Tadmur Castle, is a castle overlooking Palmyra in the province of Homs, Syria.

The Great Mosque of Aleppo is the largest and one of the oldest mosques in the city of Aleppo, Syria. It is located in al-Jalloum district of the Ancient City of Aleppo, a World Heritage Site, near the entrance to Al-Madina Souq. The mosque is purportedly home to the remains of Zechariah, the father of John the Baptist, both of whom are revered in Islam and Christianity. It was built in the beginning of the 8th century CE. However, the current building dates back to the 11th through 14th centuries. The minaret in the mosque was built in 1090, and was destroyed during fighting in the Syrian Civil War in April 2013.

The Al-Omari Mosque is an early Islamic-era mosque in the Roman city of Bosra, Syria. It was founded by Caliph Umar, who led the Muslim conquest of Syria in 636 CE, and it was completed in the early 8th century by Caliph Yazid II. The mosque was renovated in the 12th and 13th century CE by the Ayyubid dynasties.

The Ancient City of Aleppo is the historic city centre of Aleppo, Syria. Prior to the Syrian Civil War, many districts of the ancient city remained essentially unchanged since they were initially constructed between the 11th and 16th centuries. Being subjected to constant invasions and political instability, the inhabitants of the city were forced to build economically independent cell-like quarters and districts, most of which were delineated along ethnic and religious lines. These urban subdistricts, along with the ancient walled city that they surround, comprise an approximate area of 350 hectares and are home to more than 120,000 residents.

Al-Tayba is a village in eastern Syria, administratively part of the Homs Governorate. It is located in the Syrian Desert, near the Euphrates River to the east and al-Sukhnah and the village of al-Kawm to the west. Like many of the other desert towns in Syria, it is situated in a spring-fed oasis. According to the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), al-Taybah had a population of 2,413 in the 2004 census.

Deliberate destruction and theft of cultural heritage have been conducted by the Islamic State (IS) since 2014 in Iraq, Syria, and to a lesser extent in Libya. The destruction targets various places of worship under IS control and ancient historical artifacts. In Iraq, between the fall of Mosul in June 2014 and February 2015, IS had plundered and destroyed at least 28 historical religious buildings. Valuable items from some buildings were looted in order to smuggle and sell them to foreigners to finance the running of the Islamic State.

The Palmyra offensive of May 2015 was a military operation launched during the Syrian Civil War by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) on May 13–26, 2015, in an attempt to capture the government-held Tadmur District of the Homs Governorate, including the administrative centre of Tadmur, known in English as Palmyra. The ruins and ancient monuments of Palmyra, which lie on the south-western fringe of the modern city, have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1980. The ruins were part of a desert oasis that was one of the most significant cultural centers of the ancient world, linking the civilizations of Persia, India, China with the Roman Empire through trade. The offensive was one of the largest offensives launched by ISIL, the largest one conducted by ISIL in Syria since the 2014 Eastern Syria offensive, with the result of the offensive increasing ISIL's control of Syria to at least 50%.

The Palmyra offensive of July–August 2015 was a military operation launched during the Syrian Civil War by the Syrian Arab Army in July 2015, in an attempt to recapture the ISIL-held city of Tadmur, known in English as Palmyra.

The Temple of Baalshamin was an ancient temple in the city of Palmyra, Syria, dedicated to the Canaanite sky deity Baalshamin. The temple's earliest phase dates to the late 2nd century BC; its altar was built in 115 AD, and the temple was substantially rebuilt in 131 AD. The temple would have been closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire in a campaign against the temples of the East made by Maternus Cynegius, Praetorian Prefect of Oriens, between 25 May 385 to 19 March 388. With the spreading of Christianity in the region in the 5th century AD, the temple was converted to a church.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tourism in Syria</span>

Although Syria has some of the oldest cities in Western Asia, such as Damascus and Aleppo, tourism in Syria has greatly reduced as a result of the Syrian War, that began in 2011 and is ongoing, and its associated refugee crisis. Tourism has been further impacted by the outbreak of COVID-19 starting in March 2020. The international economic sanctions imposed on Syria and the sharp drop in the value of the Syrian pound also adversely impact tourism in Syria. The Ministry of Tourism is the responsible government department.

The Palmyra offensive was a military operation of the Syrian Arab Army, supported by Russian airstrikes, to recapture from the Islamic State the city of Tadmur, which was strategically important for both forces due to its position in central Syria. The city was fully recaptured on 27 March.

The Palmyra offensive in December 2016 was a military operation launched by the military of ISIL which led to the re-capture of the ancient city of Palmyra, and an unsuccessful ISIL attack on the Tiyas T-4 Airbase to the west of the city. ISIL previously controlled the city from May 2015 until March 2016.

References

↑ "Cairo Blast Rips Into Islamic Art Museum, Damaging Key Global Collection". 26 January 2014. Archived from the original on January 27, 2014.
↑ "Cairo's Islamic Art Museum hit in blast". BBC News. 24 January 2014.
↑ Cairo, Associated Press in (26 January 2014). "Unesco to assess blast damage at Islamic museum in Cairo". the Guardian.
↑ Knight, Sam (February 22, 2006). "Bombing of Shia shrine sparks wave of retaliation". The Times. London. Archived from the original on February 10, 2008. Retrieved February 23, 2006.
↑ Bailey, Martin (20 January 2016). "Isil extremists destroy Iraq's oldest Christian monastery". The Art Newspaper .
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Kieron Monks (29 June 2015). "The greatest buildings you'll never see: 20 priceless monuments lost in conflict". CNN. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
↑ "Benghazi Treasure". Trafficking Culture Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2012-09-06.
↑ "Destruction of Cyrene Necropolis". Archaeological Institute of America. Retrieved 2013-08-26.
↑ Sturgis, Russel (1909). A History of Architecture. The Baker & Taylor Company. pp. 197–198. ISBN 90-04-07929-7.
↑ Hayrumyan, Naira (24 September 2014). "Middle East Terror: Memory of Armenian Genocide victims targeted by ISIS militants". ArmeniaNow .
↑ "IS said to destroy Armenian Genocide memorial". The Times of Israel . 22 September 2014.
↑ "Who destroyed the Armenian Genocide Martyrs' Memorial Church in Deir Ezzor?". conflict antiquities. 12 November 2014. Retrieved 20 March 2015.
↑ "Aleppo citadel hit by shelling, says opposition". The Daily Star Lebanon. Agence France Presse. 11 August 2012. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
↑ Abigail Hauslohner and Ahmed Ramadan (5 May 2013). "Ancient Syrian castles serve again as fighting positions". Washington Post. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
1 2 Abigail Hauslohner and Ahmed Ramadan (5 May 2013). "Ancient Syrian castles serve again as fighting positions". Washington Post. Retrieved 9 May 2014.
↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2017-10-19. Retrieved 2015-07-02.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
↑ Rougier, 2007, p. 258
1 2 Aji, Albert; Mroue, Bassem (2013-07-27). "Khalid Ibn Al-Walid Mosque In Homs' Khaldiyeh District". Huffington Post. Associated Press . Retrieved 2013-09-16.
↑ Bakri, Nada (18 July 2011). "At Funerals for Protesters, More Syrians Are Fatally Shot". New York Times. Retrieved 8 September 2012.
↑ "Syrie : l'armée en voie de contrôler totalement Homs". Le Figaro. 2013-07-30. Retrieved 2013-07-30.
↑ Director-General of UNESCO appeals for protection of Syria's cultural heritage, UNESCO, 2012-03-30, retrieved 2012-04-16
↑ "Robert Fisk: Syria's ancient treasures pulverised". The Independent. London. 2012-08-05. Retrieved 2012-08-05.
↑ "Latest victim of Syria air strikes: Famed Krak des Chevaliers castle". Middle East Online. 13 July 2013. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
↑ Holmes, Oliver (20 March 2014). "Syrian army retakes Crusader castle from rebels". Reuters.
1 2 3 4 "Syria's ancient oasis city of Palmyra threatened in fighting". Reuters. 3 April 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2015.
1 2 "Une vidéo amateur ravive les craintes de pillage sur les sites archéologiques de Syrie" (in French). France 24. 30 July 2012. Retrieved 8 February 2015.
↑ "Palmyra: Will ISIS bulldoze ancient Syrian city?". CNN. 18 May 2015. Retrieved 18 May 2015.
↑ "Islamic State seizes Syria's ancient Palmyra". BBC News. 21 May 2015. Retrieved 21 May 2015.
↑ Louisa Loveluck (June 16, 2015). "Syrian regime 'launches air strike on world famous ancient city of Palmyra'". London: The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on June 16, 2015. Retrieved June 17, 2015.
↑ "Palmyra's Temple of Bel destroyed, says UN". BBC News. 1 September 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
↑ Karam, Zeina. "Historic Aleppo mosque damaged in fighting; repairs ordered". The Washington Times . Retrieved 26 April 2013.
↑ Saad, Hwaida; Gladstone, Rick (24 April 2013). "Storied Syrian Mosque's Minaret Is Destroyed". The New York Times . Retrieved 24 April 2013.
1 2 Spencer, Richard (24 April 2013). "Syria: 11th-century minaret of Great Umayyad Mosque of Aleppo destroyed". The Daily Telegraph . London. Retrieved 25 April 2013.

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[1] "Cairo Blast Rips Into Islamic Art Museum, Damaging Key Global Collection". 26 January 2014. Archived from the original on January 27, 2014.

[2] "Cairo's Islamic Art Museum hit in blast". BBC News. 24 January 2014.

[3] Cairo, Associated Press in (26 January 2014). "Unesco to assess blast damage at Islamic museum in Cairo". the Guardian.

[4] Knight, Sam (February 22, 2006). "Bombing of Shia shrine sparks wave of retaliation". The Times. London. Archived from the original on February 10, 2008. Retrieved February 23, 2006.

[5] Bailey, Martin (20 January 2016). "Isil extremists destroy Iraq's oldest Christian monastery". The Art Newspaper .

[Kieron_Monks-6] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Kieron Monks (29 June 2015). "The greatest buildings you'll never see: 20 priceless monuments lost in conflict". CNN. Retrieved 2 July 2015.

[7] "Benghazi Treasure". Trafficking Culture Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2012-09-06.

[8] "Destruction of Cyrene Necropolis". Archaeological Institute of America. Retrieved 2013-08-26.

[9] Sturgis, Russel (1909). A History of Architecture. The Baker & Taylor Company. pp. 197–198. ISBN 90-04-07929-7.

[10] Hayrumyan, Naira (24 September 2014). "Middle East Terror: Memory of Armenian Genocide victims targeted by ISIS militants". ArmeniaNow .

[11] "IS said to destroy Armenian Genocide memorial". The Times of Israel . 22 September 2014.

[12] "Who destroyed the Armenian Genocide Martyrs' Memorial Church in Deir Ezzor?". conflict antiquities. 12 November 2014. Retrieved 20 March 2015.

[13] "Aleppo citadel hit by shelling, says opposition". The Daily Star Lebanon. Agence France Presse. 11 August 2012. Retrieved 10 August 2012.

[14] Abigail Hauslohner and Ahmed Ramadan (5 May 2013). "Ancient Syrian castles serve again as fighting positions". Washington Post. Retrieved 2 July 2015.

[Abigail_Hauslohner_and_Ahmed_Ramadan-15] 1 2 Abigail Hauslohner and Ahmed Ramadan (5 May 2013). "Ancient Syrian castles serve again as fighting positions". Washington Post. Retrieved 9 May 2014.

[16] "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2017-10-19. Retrieved 2015-07-02.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

[17] Rougier, 2007, p. 258

[HP-18] 1 2 Aji, Albert; Mroue, Bassem (2013-07-27). "Khalid Ibn Al-Walid Mosque In Homs' Khaldiyeh District". Huffington Post. Associated Press . Retrieved 2013-09-16.

[19] Bakri, Nada (18 July 2011). "At Funerals for Protesters, More Syrians Are Fatally Shot". New York Times. Retrieved 8 September 2012.

[20] "Syrie : l'armée en voie de contrôler totalement Homs". Le Figaro. 2013-07-30. Retrieved 2013-07-30.

[21] Director-General of UNESCO appeals for protection of Syria's cultural heritage, UNESCO, 2012-03-30, retrieved 2012-04-16

[22] "Robert Fisk: Syria's ancient treasures pulverised". The Independent. London. 2012-08-05. Retrieved 2012-08-05.

[Air_strike_2013-23] "Latest victim of Syria air strikes: Famed Krak des Chevaliers castle". Middle East Online. 13 July 2013. Retrieved 14 July 2013.

[24] Holmes, Oliver (20 March 2014). "Syrian army retakes Crusader castle from rebels". Reuters.

[looting269-25] 1 2 3 4 "Syria's ancient oasis city of Palmyra threatened in fighting". Reuters. 3 April 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2015.

[looting88-26] 1 2 "Une vidéo amateur ravive les craintes de pillage sur les sites archéologiques de Syrie" (in French). France 24. 30 July 2012. Retrieved 8 February 2015.

[27] "Palmyra: Will ISIS bulldoze ancient Syrian city?". CNN. 18 May 2015. Retrieved 18 May 2015.

[28] "Islamic State seizes Syria's ancient Palmyra". BBC News. 21 May 2015. Retrieved 21 May 2015.

[29] Louisa Loveluck (June 16, 2015). "Syrian regime 'launches air strike on world famous ancient city of Palmyra'". London: The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on June 16, 2015. Retrieved June 17, 2015.

[30] "Palmyra's Temple of Bel destroyed, says UN". BBC News. 1 September 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2015.

[31] Karam, Zeina. "Historic Aleppo mosque damaged in fighting; repairs ordered". The Washington Times . Retrieved 26 April 2013.

[nytminaret1-32] Saad, Hwaida; Gladstone, Rick (24 April 2013). "Storied Syrian Mosque's Minaret Is Destroyed". The New York Times . Retrieved 24 April 2013.

[Telegraph-33] 1 2 Spencer, Richard (24 April 2013). "Syria: 11th-century minaret of Great Umayyad Mosque of Aleppo destroyed". The Daily Telegraph . London. Retrieved 25 April 2013.

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