List of paleocontinents

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Animation of the break-up of the supercontinent Pangaea and the subsequent drift of its constituents, from the Early Triassic to recent (250 Ma to 0). Pangea animation 03.gif
Animation of the break-up of the supercontinent Pangaea and the subsequent drift of its constituents, from the Early Triassic to recent (250 Ma to 0).

This is a list of paleocontinents, significant landmasses that have been proposed to exist in the geological past. The degree of certainty to which the identified landmasses can be regarded as independent entities reduces as geologists look further back in time. The list includes cratons, supercratons, microcontinents, continents and supercontinents. For the Archean to Paleoproterozoic cores of most of the continents see also list of shields and cratons.

List of paleocontinents

NameAge (Ma)Period/Era RangeTypeCommentsSources
Amazonia Craton [1] [2] [3]
Arabia–Nubia 610NeoproterozoicMicrocontinentRifted off Rodinia at about 840 Ma. Then accreted to North Africa with large volume of juvenile crust during the Pan-African orogeny to form the Arabian-Nubian Shield. [4] [5]
Arctica 2565NeoarcheanSupercraton [6]
Argoland 155an archipelago of microcontinentsRifted off Australia 155 Ma ago after splitting into microcontinents about 215Ma ago [7] [8]
Atlantica 1500MesoproterozoicContinentFormed from a series of cratons during the development of Columbia - independent from about 1500 Ma, following break-up of Columbia - part of Rodinia from 1000 Ma [2]
Avalonia CambrianContinentRifted off northern Gondwana in the Cambrian, eventually colliding with Laurentia and Baltica in the Caledonian Orogeny to form Laurussia. [9]
Baltica 2000PaleoproterozoicContinentFormed from three cratonic fragments - the Baltic Shield, Sarmatia and Volgo–Uralia. Formed part of Columbia, then Rodinia and Pannotia. Collided with Laurentia and Avalonia to form Laurussia. [1] [4] [2] [10]
Cathaysia 1800ContinentFused with the Yangtze block to form the South China Craton during the Early Paleozoic. [11]
Cimmeria 300Late Carboniferous–Early PermianContinentRifted off margin of Gondwana, opening up Neotethys, collided with Laurasia about 150 Ma in the Cimmerian Orogeny. Regarded as being made up of many separate continental fragments. [12]
Columbia (Nuna) 2100PaleoproterozoicSupercontinentOldest widely accepted supercontinent. also known as Nuna. [13] [3]
East Antarctica Craton [14]
East European CratonThe cratonic core of Baltica or a synonym for the paleocontinent [2] [10]
Gondwana 500Late NeoproterozoicContinentAlso described as a supercontinent [4] [15]
India Continent [1] [4]
Kalahari Craton [1] [4]
Kazakhstania Continent [16]
Kenorland 2720NeoarcheanSupercontinentAlternatively, landmasses may have grouped into two supercratons, Sclavia and Superia [17]
Laurasia Carboniferous-PermianContinentFormed by the break-up of Pangaea after Kazakhstania and Siberia had joined with the former Laurussia [15]
Laurentia 1830PaleoarcheanContinent [1]
Laurussia 425Early DevonianContinentThe "Old Red Continent" formed by the Caledonian Orogeny, joined with Gondwana to form Pangaea [18]
Mawson 1730PaleoproterozoicContinent [3]
Nena 1900PaleoproterozoicContinent [13]
North Australia 2000PaleoproterozoicCraton [19]
North China 2500PaleoproterozoicCraton [1] [4]
Pangaea 350Late PermianSupercontinent [15]
Pannotia 600NeoproterozoicSupercontinent [20]
Rodinia 1000MesoproterozoicSupercontinent [4]
São Francisco–Congo 1800ProterozoicCraton [1] [13]
Sclavia PaleoarcheanSupercraton [17]
Siberia 2800NeoarcheanContinent [1] [4]
Sahul Paleoproterozoic paleocontinent mainland Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and Aru Islands. [21]
South Australia Craton [19]
South China NeoproterozoicCraton [4]
Superia 2680NeoarcheanSupercraton [17]
Tarim Early MesoproterozoicCraton [22] [4]
Ur 3100MesoarcheanContinent [23]
Vaalbara 3300Late Neoarchean–Early PaleoproterozoicContinent [17]
West Africa PaleoproterozoicCraton [2] [1] [3]
West Australia 2000PaleoprotereozoicCraton [19]
Yangtze 1800Late Neoarchean–Early PaleoproterozoicCratonFused with the Cathaysia block to form the South China Craton during the Early Paleozoic. [11]

Related Research Articles

The Precambrian is the earliest part of Earth's history, set before the current Phanerozoic Eon. The Precambrian is so named because it preceded the Cambrian, the first period of the Phanerozoic Eon, which is named after Cambria, the Latinized name for Wales, where rocks from this age were first studied. The Precambrian accounts for 88% of the Earth's geologic time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Supercontinent</span> Landmass comprising more than one continental core, or craton

In geology, a supercontinent is the assembly of most or all of Earth's continental blocks or cratons to form a single large landmass. However, some geologists use a different definition, "a grouping of formerly dispersed continents", which leaves room for interpretation and is easier to apply to Precambrian times. To separate supercontinents from other groupings, a limit has been proposed in which a continent must include at least about 75% of the continental crust then in existence in order to qualify as a supercontinent.

Rodinia was a Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic supercontinent that assembled 1.26–0.90 billion years ago (Ga) and broke up 750–633 million years ago (Ma). Valentine & Moores 1970 were probably the first to recognise a Precambrian supercontinent, which they named "Pangaea I." It was renamed "Rodinia" by McMenamin & McMenamin 1990, who also were the first to produce a plate reconstruction and propose a temporal framework for the supercontinent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mesoproterozoic</span> Second era of the Proterozoic Eon

The Mesoproterozoic Era is a geologic era that occurred from 1,600 to 1,000 million years ago. The Mesoproterozoic was the first era of Earth's history for which a fairly definitive geological record survives. Continents existed during the preceding era, but little is known about them. The continental masses of the Mesoproterozoic were more or less the same ones that exist today, although their arrangement on the Earth's surface was different.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Columbia (supercontinent)</span> Ancient supercontinent of approximately 2,500 to 1,500 million years ago

Columbia, also known as Nuna or Hudsonland, is a hypothetical ancient supercontinent. It was first proposed by John J.W. Rogers and M. Santosh in 2002 and is thought to have existed approximately 2,500 to 1,500 million years ago (Ma), in the Paleoproterozoic era. The assembly of the supercontinent was likely completed during global-scale collisional events from 2,100 to 1,800 Ma.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arctica</span> Ancient continent in the Neoarchean era

Arctica, or Arctida is a hypothetical ancient continent which formed approximately 2.565 billion years ago in the Neoarchean era. It was made of Archaean cratons, including the Siberian Craton, with its Anabar/Aldan shields in Siberia, and the Slave, Wyoming, Superior, and North Atlantic cratons in North America. Arctica was named by Rogers 1996 because the Arctic Ocean formed by the separation of the North American and Siberian cratons. Russian geologists writing in English call the continent "Arctida" since it was given that name in 1987, alternatively the Hyperborean craton, in reference to the hyperboreans in Greek mythology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pannotia</span> Hypothesized Neoproterozoic supercontinent

Pannotia, also known as the Vendian supercontinent, Greater Gondwana, and the Pan-African supercontinent, was a relatively short-lived Neoproterozoic supercontinent that formed at the end of the Precambrian during the Pan-African orogeny, during the Cryogenian period and broke apart 560 Ma with the opening of the Iapetus Ocean, in the late Ediacaran and early Cambrian. Pannotia formed when Laurentia was located adjacent to the two major South American cratons, Amazonia and Río de la Plata. The opening of the Iapetus Ocean separated Laurentia from Baltica, Amazonia, and Río de la Plata. A 2022 paper argues that Pannotia never fully existed, reinterpreting the geochronological evidence: "the supposed landmass had begun to break up well before it was fully assembled". However, the assembly of the next supercontinent Pangaea is well established.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Baltica</span> Late-Proterozoic to early-Palaeozoic continent

Baltica is a paleocontinent that formed in the Paleoproterozoic and now constitutes northwestern Eurasia, or Europe north of the Trans-European Suture Zone and west of the Ural Mountains. The thick core of Baltica, the East European Craton, is more than three billion years old and formed part of the Rodinia supercontinent at c. 1 Ga.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atlantica</span> Ancient continent formed during the Proterozoic about 2 billion years ago

Atlantica is an ancient continent that formed during the Proterozoic about 2,000 million years ago from various 2 Ga cratons located in what are now West Africa and eastern South America. The name, introduced by John Rogers in 1996, was chosen because the parts of the ancient continent are now located on opposite sides of the South Atlantic Ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Congo Craton</span> Precambrian craton that with four others makes up the modern continent of Africa

The Congo Craton, covered by the Palaeozoic-to-recent Congo Basin, is an ancient Precambrian craton that with four others makes up the modern continent of Africa. These cratons were formed between about 3.6 and 2.0 billion years ago and have been tectonically stable since that time. All of these cratons are bounded by younger fold belts formed between 2.0 billion and 300 million years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vaalbara</span> Archaean supercontinent from about 3.6 to 2.7 billion years ago

Vaalbara is a hypothetical Archean supercontinent consisting of the Kaapvaal Craton and the Pilbara Craton. E. S. Cheney derived the name from the last four letters of each craton's name. The two cratons consist of continental crust dating from 2.7 to 3.6 Ga, which would make Vaalbara one of Earth's earliest supercontinents.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kalahari Craton</span> African geological area

The Kalahari Craton is a craton, an old and stable part of the continental lithosphere, that occupies large portions of South Africa, Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe. It consists of two cratons separated by the Limpopo Belt: the larger Kaapvaal Craton to the south and the smaller Zimbabwe Craton to the north. The Namaqua Belt is the southern margin of the Kaapvaal Craton.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">North China Craton</span> Continental crustal block in northeast China, Inner Mongolia, the Yellow Sea, and North Korea

The North China Craton is a continental crustal block with one of Earth's most complete and complex records of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic processes. It is located in northeast China, Inner Mongolia, the Yellow Sea, and North Korea. The term craton designates this as a piece of continent that is stable, buoyant and rigid. Basic properties of the cratonic crust include being thick, relatively cold when compared to other regions, and low density. The North China Craton is an ancient craton, which experienced a long period of stability and fitted the definition of a craton well. However, the North China Craton later experienced destruction of some of its deeper parts (decratonization), which means that this piece of continent is no longer as stable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Río de la Plata Craton</span> Medium-sized continental block in Uruguay, eastern Argentina and southern Brazil

The Rio de la Plata Craton (RPC) is a medium-sized continental block found in Uruguay, eastern Argentina and southern Brazil. During its complex and protracted history it interacted with a series other blocks and is therefore considered important for the understanding of the amalgamation of West Gondwana. Two orogenic cycles have been identified in the RPC: a 2000 Ma-old western domain representing the old craton and a 700–500 Ma-old eastern domain assigned to the Brasiliano Cycle. It is one of the five cratons of the South American continent. The other four cratons are: Amazonia, São Francisco, Río Apa and Arequipa–Antofalla.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ur (continent)</span> Hypothetical Archaean supercontinent from about 3.1 billion years ago

Ur is a hypothetical supercontinent that formed in the Archean eon around 3.1 billion years ago (Ga). In a reconstruction by Rogers, Ur is half a billion years older than Arctica and, in the early period of its existence, probably the only continent on Earth, making it a supercontinent despite probably being smaller than present-day Australia. In more recent works geologists often refer to both Ur and other proposed Archaean continental assemblages as supercratons. Ur can, nevertheless, be half a billion years younger than Vaalbara, but the concepts of these two early cratonic assemblages are incompatible.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">East African Orogeny</span> Main stage in the Neoproterozoic assembly of East and West Gondwana

The East African Orogeny (EAO) is the main stage in the Neoproterozoic assembly of East and West Gondwana along the Mozambique Belt.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western Block of the North China Craton</span> Sub-block of the North China craton

The Western Block of the North China Craton is an ancient micro-continental block mainly composed of Neoarchean and Paleoproterozoic rock basement, with some parts overlain by Cambrian to Cenozoic volcanic and sedimentary rocks. It is one of two sub-blocks within the North China Craton, located in east-central China. The boundaries of the Western Block are slightly different among distinct models, but the shapes and areas are similar. There is a broad consensus that the Western Block covers a large part of the east-central China.

A continent is a large geographical region defined by the continental shelves and the cultures on the continent. In the modern day, there are seven continents. However, there have been more continents throughout history. Vaalbara was the first supercontinent. Europe is the newest continent. Geologists have predicted that certain continents will appear, these being Pangaea Proxima, Novopangaea, Aurica, and Amasia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dharwar Craton</span> Part of the Indian Shield in south India

The Dharwar Craton is an Archean continental crust craton formed between 3.6-2.5 billion years ago (Ga), which is located in southern India and considered the oldest part of the Indian peninsula.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Mertanen, S.; Pesonen, L.J. (2012). "2. Paleo-Mesoproterozoic Assemblages of Continents: Paleomagnetic Evidence for Near Equatorial Supercontinents". In Haapala, I. (ed.). From the Earth's Core to Outer Space. Lecture Notes in Earth System Sciences. Vol. 137. Springer Science & Business Media. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-25550-2_2. ISBN   9783642255502.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Terentiev, R.A.; Santosh, M. (2020). "Baltica (East European Craton) and Atlantica (Amazonian and West African Cratons) in the Proterozoic: The pre-Columbia connection". Earth-Science Reviews. 210: 103378. Bibcode:2020ESRv..21003378T. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103378. S2CID   224932710.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Pisarevsky, S.A.; Elming, S.-Å.; Pesonen, L.J.; Li, Z.-X. (2014). "Mesoproterozoic paleogeography: Supercontinent and beyond". Precambrian Research. 244: 207–225. Bibcode:2014PreR..244..207P. doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2013.05.014.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Li, Z.X.; Bogdanova, S.V.; Collins, A.S.; Davidson, A.; De Waele, B.; Ernst, R.E.; Fitzsimmons, I.C.W.; Fuck, R.A.; Gladkochub, D.P.; Jacobs, J.; Karlstrom, K.E.; Lu, S.; Natapov, L.M.; Pease, V.; Pisarevsky, S.A.; Thrane, K.; Vernikovsky, V. (2008). "Assembly, configuration, and break-up history of Rodinia: A synthesis". Precambrian Research. 160 (1–2): 179–210. Bibcode:2008PreR..160..179L. doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.021.
  5. ↑ Condie, K.C. (2003). "Supercontinents, superplumes and continental growth: the Neoproterozoic record". In Yoshida, M.; Windley, W.F.; Dasgupta, S. (eds.). Proterozoic East Gondwana: Supercontinent Assembly and Breakup. Geological Society, Special Publications. Vol. 206. p. 1–21. doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.2003.206.01.02. ISBN   9781862391253. S2CID   128738137.
  6. ↑ Rogers, J. J. W.; Santosh, M. (2003). "Supercontinents in Earth History" (PDF). Gondwana Research. 6 (3): 357–368. Bibcode:2003GondR...6..357R. doi:10.1016/S1342-937X(05)70993-X . Retrieved 8 March 2016.
  7. ↑ "Geological puzzle of lost continent of Argoland solved". 24 October 2023.
  8. ↑ "Lost continent Argoland discovered hidden beneath jungles". Newsweek . 23 October 2023.
  9. ↑ Nance, R.D.; Murphy, J.B.; Keppie, J.D. (2002). "A Cordilleran model for the evolution of Avalonia". Tectonophysics. 352 (1–2): 11–31. Bibcode:2002Tectp.352...11N. doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(02)00187-7.
  10. 1 2 Lubnina, N.V.; Pisarevsky, S.A.; Stepanova, A.V.; Bogdanova, S.V.; Sokolov, S.J. (2017). "Fennoscandia before Nuna/Columbia: Paleomagnetism of 1.98–1.96 Ga mafic rocks of the Karelian craton and paleogeographic implications". Precambrian Research. 292: 1–12. Bibcode:2017PreR..292....1L. doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2017.01.011.
  11. 1 2 Su, W.; Huff, W.D.; Ettensohn, F.R.; Liu, X.; Zhang, J.; Li, Z. (2009). "K-bentonite, black-shale and flysch successions at the Ordovician–Silurian transition, South China: Possible sedimentary responses to the accretion of Cathaysia to the Yangtze Block and its implications for the evolution of Gondwana". Gondwana Research. 15 (1): 111–130. Bibcode:2009GondR..15..111S. doi:10.1016/j.gr.2008.06.004.
  12. ↑ Ueno, K. (2003). "The Permian fusulinoidean faunas of the Sibumasu and Baoshan blocks: their implications for the paleogeographic and paleoclimatologic reconstruction of the Cimmerian Continent". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 193 (1): 1–24. Bibcode:2003PPP...193....1U. doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(02)00708-3.
  13. 1 2 3 Meert, J.G.; Santosh, M. (2017). "The Columbia supercontinent revisited". Gondwana Research. 50: 67–83. Bibcode:2017GondR..50...67M. doi: 10.1016/j.gr.2017.04.011 .
  14. ↑ Goodge, J.W.; Fanning, C.M.; Fisher, C.M.; Vervoort, J.D. (2017). "Proterozoic crustal evolution of central East Antarctica: Age and isotopic evidence from glacial igneous clasts, and links with Australia and Laurentia". Precambrian Research. 299: 151–176. Bibcode:2017PreR..299..151G. doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2017.07.026. hdl: 1885/139044 .
  15. 1 2 3 Correia, P.; Murphy, J.B. (2020). "Iberian-Appalachian connection is the missing link between Gondwana and Laurasia that confirms a Wegenerian Pangaea configuration". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 2498. Bibcode:2020NatSR..10.2498C. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-59461-x . PMC   7015919 . PMID   32051503.
  16. ↑ Popov, L. E.; Cocks, L. R. M. (2006). "Late Ordovician brachiopods from the Dulankara Formation of the Chu-Ili Range, Kazakhstan: their systematics, palaeoecology and palaeobiogeography". Palaeontology. 49 (2): 247–283. Bibcode:2006Palgy..49..247P. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-4983.2006.00544.x . S2CID   129492176.
  17. 1 2 3 4 Bleeker, W. (2003). "The late Archean record: a puzzle in ca. 35 pieces". Lithos. 71 (2–4): 99–134. Bibcode:2003Litho..71...99B. doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2003.07.003.
  18. ↑ Ziegler, P.A. (2012). Evolution of Laurussia: A Study in Late Palaeozoic Plate Tectonics. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN   9789400904699.
  19. 1 2 3 Cawood, P.A.; Korsch, R.J. (2008). "Assembling Australia: Proterozoic building of a continent". Precambrian Research. 166 (1–4): 1–35. Bibcode:2008PreR..166....1C. doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2008.08.006.
  20. ↑ Nance, R.D.; Murphy, J.B. (2019). "Supercontinents and the case for Pannotia". In Wilson, R.W.; Houseman, G.A.; McCaffrey, K.J.W.; Doré, A.G.; Buiter, S.J.H. (eds.). Fifty Years of the Wilson Cycle Concept in Plate Tectonics. Geological Society, Special Publications. Vol. 470. pp. 65–86. Bibcode:2019GSLSP.470...65N. doi:10.1144/SP470.5. ISBN   9781786203830. S2CID   134018369.
  21. ↑ White, J. Peter; O'Connell, James F. (1982). A prehistory of Australia, New Guinea and Sahul. Sydney: Academic Press Australia. p. 6. ISBN   0-12-746750-5.
  22. ↑ Zhang, C.-L.; Ye, X.-T.; Ernst, R.E.; Zhong, Y.; Zhang, J.; Li, H.-K.; Long, X.-P. (2019). "Revisiting the Precambrian evolution of the Southwestern Tarim terrane: Implications for its role in Precambrian supercontinents". Precambrian Research. 324: 18–31. Bibcode:2019PreR..324...18Z. doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2019.01.018. S2CID   135069518.
  23. ↑ Nance, R. D.; Murphy, J. B.; Santosh, M. (2014). "The supercontinent cycle: a retrospective essay". Gondwana Research. 25 (1): 4–29. Bibcode:2014GondR..25....4N. doi:10.1016/j.gr.2012.12.026 . Retrieved 22 November 2020.
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