Lithuanian Civil War (1389–92)

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Lithuanian Civil War (1389–1392)
Part of Vytautas–Jogaila power struggle
Polish and Lithuanian Conflict with Prussia. 1377-1435..png
Map of the Teutonic Knight conflict with Lithuania and Poland
Date1389–1392
Location Prussia, Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Result Ostrów Agreement; Jogaila was designated Supreme Duke and Vytautas Grand Duke
Belligerents
Den tyske ordens skjold.svg Teutonic Knights
Coat of arms of Samogitia.svg Samogitia
Alex Volhynia.svg Rus' principalities 		Herb Pogon Litewska.jpg Grand Duchy of Lithuania
POL Przemysl II 1295 COA.svg Kingdom of Poland
Commanders and leaders
Vytautas
Conrad Zöllner von Rothenstein
Konrad von Wallenrode 		Wladyslaw Jogaila
Skirgaila

The Lithuanian Civil War of 1389–92 was the second civil conflict between Jogaila, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, and his cousin Vytautas. At issue was control of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, then the largest state in Europe. [1] Jogaila had been crowned King of Poland in 1386; he installed his brother Skirgaila as ruler of Lithuania. Skirgaila proved unpopular and Vytautas attempted to depose him. When his first attempt to take the capital city of Vilnius failed, Vytautas forged an alliance with the Teutonic Knights, their common enemy – just as both cousins had done during the Lithuanian Civil War between 1381 and 1384. Vytautas and the Knights unsuccessfully besieged Vilnius in 1390. Over the next two years it became clear that neither side could achieve a quick victory, and Jogaila proposed a compromise: Vytautas would become Grand Duke and Jogaila would remain Superior Duke. This proposal was formalized in the Ostrów Agreement of 1392, and Vytautas turned against the Knights. He went on to reign as Grand Duke of Lithuania for 38 years, and the cousins remained at peace.

Vytautas King of Lithuania

Vytautas, also known as Vytautas the Great from the 15th century onwards, was a ruler of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which chiefly encompassed the Lithuanians and Ruthenians. He was also the Prince of Hrodna (1370–1382), Prince of Lutsk (1387–1389), and the postulated king of the Hussites.

Grand Duchy of Lithuania European state from the 12th century until 1795

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state that lasted from the 13th century to 1795, when the territory was partitioned among the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia and Austria.

Skirgaila Grand Duke of Lithuania

Skirgaila was a regent of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for his brother Jogaila from 1386 to 1392. He was the son of Algirdas, Grand Duke of Lithuania, and his second wife Uliana of Tver.

Contents

Background

The family of Gediminas ruled a state that covered the territories of present-day Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Transnistria, and parts of Poland and Russia. Gediminas died in 1341; afterwards his sons Algirdas and Kęstutis, the fathers of Jogaila and Vytautas, co-ruled the Grand Duchy peacefully. However, after Algirdas' death in 1377, Kęstutis, Jogaila, and Vytautas began a power struggle. During their first conflict, the Lithuanian Civil War between 1381 and 1384, Vytautas and Jogaila both struck short-lived alliances with the Teutonic Knights. Vytautas did not manage to seize the throne and reconciled with Jogaila in 1384.

Family of Gediminas noble family

The family of Gediminas is a group of family members of Gediminas, Grand Duke of Lithuania, who interacted in the 14th century. The family included the siblings, children, and grandchildren of the Grand Duke and played the pivotal role in the history of Lithuania for the period as the Lithuanian nobility had not yet acquired its influence. Gediminas was also the forefather of the Gediminid dynasty, which ruled the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from 1310s or 1280s to 1572.

Belarus country in Eastern Europe

Belarus, officially the Republic of Belarus, formerly known by its Russian name Byelorussia or Belorussia, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe bordered by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Its capital and most populous city is Minsk. Over 40% of its 207,600 square kilometres (80,200 sq mi) is forested. Its major economic sectors are service industries and manufacturing. Until the 20th century, different states at various times controlled the lands of modern-day Belarus, including the Principality of Polotsk, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Russian Empire.

Ukraine Sovereign state in Eastern Europe

Ukraine, sometimes called the Ukraine, is a country in Eastern Europe. Excluding Crimea, Ukraine has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. Its capital and largest city is Kiev. Ukrainian is the official language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religions in the country are Eastern Orthodoxy and Greek Catholicism. Ukraine is currently in a territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula, which Russia annexed in 2014. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2 (233,062 sq mi), making it the largest country entirely within Europe and the 46th largest country in the world.

Jogaila created a significant new alliance with the Kingdom of Poland when he secured an agreement, known as the Union of Krewo (August 1385), to marry the twelve-year-old King of Poland Jadwiga of Poland. He married Jadwiga and was crowned jure uxoris king of Poland in February 1386. [1] As a condition to the marriage and coronation, Jogaila agreed to renounce paganism himself and Christianize his subjects, and establish a personal union between Poland and Lithuania. The Union was an unwelcome development for the Teutonic Knights, as it united Poland and Lithuania, two states hostile to the Order, and a Christianized Lithuania deprived the Knights of their ideological justification for waging the Lithuanian Crusade. [2] Thus the Order sought opportunities to undo the Polish–Lithuanian union; they demanded Samogitia, a section of western Lithuania that bordered the Baltic Sea, [3] and refused to recognize Jogaila's baptism in 1386. [4]

Union of Krewo

In a strict sense, the Union of Krewo or Act of Krėva was a set of prenuptial promises made in the Kreva Castle on 14 August 1385 by Jogaila, Grand Duke of Lithuania, in exchange for marriage to the underage reigning Queen Jadwiga of Poland. The act was very limited in scope and in the historiography the term "Union of Krewo" often refers not only to the particular document but to the events of 1385–1386 as a whole. After the negotiations in 1385, Jogaila converted to Christianity, married Jadwiga, and was crowned King of Poland in 1386. The union was a decisive moment in the histories of Poland and Lithuania; it marked a beginning of the four centuries of shared history between the two nations. By 1569 the Polish–Lithuanian union grew into a new state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and lasted until the Third Partition in 1795.

Jadwiga of Poland Queen regnant of Poland

Jadwiga, also known as Hedwig, was the first female monarch of the Kingdom of Poland, reigning from 16 October 1384 until her death. She was the youngest daughter of Louis the Great, King of Hungary and Poland, and his wife Elizabeth of Bosnia. Jadwiga was a member of the Capetian House of Anjou, but she had more close forebears among the Polish Piasts. In 1997 she was canonized by the Roman Catholic Church.

Jure uxoris is a Latin phrase meaning "by right of (his) wife". When a man uses a title of nobility because his wife holds it suo jure, the man is said to hold the title jure uxoris. Similarly, the husband of an heiress could become the legal possessor of her lands. For example, married women in England were legally incapable of owning real estate until the Married Women's Property Act 1882.

Vytautas became duke of Hrodna and Podlaskie; Jogaila known now by his Christian name Władysław II (Władysław II Jagiełło) designated his brother Skirgaila regent in Lithuania. [5] [6] Skirgaila, who also ruled Vytautas' patrimony in Trakai, was disliked by the Lithuanian nobility.[ citation needed ] Vytautas, on the other hand, became increasingly popular; Władysław II began to see him as a rival. [7] Vytautas was supported by Lithuanians who resented the Polish interpretation of the recent Union of Krewo. [8] These Lithuanians wished to maintain distinct legal structures and reserve official posts for Lithuanians. [5] The Lithuanian elites also resented the changes in government that king Władysław II implemented there. [7]

Trakai City in Dzūkija, Lithuania

Trakai is a historic city and lake resort in Lithuania. It lies 28 kilometres west of Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania. Because of its proximity to Vilnius, Trakai is a popular tourist destination. Trakai is the administrative centre of Trakai district municipality. The town covers 497.1 square kilometres of area and, according to 2007 estimates, is inhabited by 5,357 people. A notable feature of Trakai is that the town was built and preserved by people of different nationalities. Historically, communities of Karaims, Tatars, Lithuanians, Russians, Jews and Poles lived here.

Lithuanian nobility

The Lithuanian nobility was historically a legally privileged class in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania consisting of Lithuanians, from the historical regions of Lithuania Proper and Samogitia, and, following Lithuania's eastern expansion, many Ruthenian noble families (boyars). Families were primarily granted privileges for their military service to the Grand Duchy. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had one of the largest percentages of nobility in Europe, close to 10% of the population, in some regions, like Samogitia, it was closer to 12%.

Civil war

1389–1390

Portrait of an English Knight, from the General Prologue of The Canterbury Tales . The fictional knight took part in many crusades, including one against the Lithuanians. Chauser knight from prologue.png
Portrait of an English Knight, from the General Prologue of The Canterbury Tales . The fictional knight took part in many crusades, including one against the Lithuanians.

Jogaila had sent Klemens Moskarzewski to establish a Polish garrison in Vilnius and stabilize the situation, but this move only angered the opposition. [9] In May 1389 Jogaila tried to mediate the conflict between Skirgaila and Vytautas in Lublin. Vytautas was pressured into signing a formal document declaring that he was loyal to Skirgaila and supported him, but his position as Duke of Lutsk was not formally acknowledged. [10] Vytautas secured his position in Lutsk, and turned his sights on Vilnius. According to Teutonic testimony at the Council of Constance, Vytautas planned to take advantage of his sister's wedding by sending wagons filled with meat, hay, and other goods to Vilnius. The wagons would be escorted by armed men, who would capture the castle once inside the city. [11] This plan was uncovered by a German spy and the conspirators were executed. [3] In another setback, two of Vytautas' strongest allies, his brother Tautvilas and his brother-in-law Ivan Olshanski, lost their territories in Navahrudak and Halshany. [10]

Vilnius City in Lithuania

Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania and its largest city, with a population of 574,147 as of 2018. Vilnius is in the southeast part of Lithuania and is the second largest city in the Baltic states. Vilnius is the seat of the main government institutions of Lithuania and the Vilnius District Municipality.

Lublin City in Poland

Lublin is the ninth largest city in Poland and the second largest city of Lesser Poland. It is the capital and the center of Lublin Voivodeship (province) with a population of 349,103. Lublin is the largest Polish city east of the Vistula River and is approximately 170 kilometres to the southeast of Warsaw by road.

Lutsk City of regional significance in Ukraine

Lutsk is a city on the Styr River in northwestern Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Volyn Oblast (province) and the administrative center of the surrounding Lutsk Raion (district) within the oblast, though it is not a part of the raion. Lutsk has the status of a city of oblast significance, equivalent to that of a raion. Population: 217,103 (2015 est.)

Vytautas then sought a military alliance with the Knights, sending captive knight Marquard von Salzbach to negotiate. On January 19, 1390 in Lyck Vytautas signed the Treaty of Lyck affirming the terms of an earlier agreement, the Treaty of Königsberg, signed in 1384 during his first conflict with Jogaila. [10] Under the terms of this treaty, the Knights were promised Samogitia, up to the Nevėžis River, in exchange for their military assistance. Having been earlier betrayed, the Knights asked for hostages as a guarantee of Vytautas' loyalty: his brothers Sigismund and Tautvilas, his wife Anna, his daughter Sophia, his sister Rymgajla, his favorite Ivan Olshanski, and a number of other nobles. [6] [12]

Marquardvon Salzbach was a Teutonic Knight, who played a prominent role in shaping the relationship between the Knights and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania between 1389 and 1410.

Ełk Place in Warmian-Masurian, Poland

Ełk is a town in northeastern Poland with 61,156 inhabitants. It was assigned to Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship in 1999, after belonging to Suwałki Voivodeship from 1975 to 1998. Ełk is the capital of Ełk County. It lies on a shore of Ełk Lake, which was formed by a glacier, and is surrounded by forests. It is the largest city, and according to many, the capital of the region of Masuria. One of its principal attractions is hunting, which is carried out in extensive forests.

The Treaty of Lyck was a treaty between Vytautas the Great, future Grand Duke of Lithuania, and the Teutonic Knights, represented by Marquard von Salzbach, komtur Arnold von Bürglen, and Thomas, son of Lithuanian duke Survila. It was signed on 19 January 1390 in Lyck, State of the Teutonic Order,. Vytautas, in exchange for a military alliance against his cousin Jogaila during the Lithuanian Civil War (1389–1392), agreed to cede Samogitia up to the Nevėžis River and become the Order's vassal. In essence Vytautas confirmed the Treaty of Königsberg (1384) that he had signed with the Knights during the Lithuanian Civil War (1381–1384). Once betrayed, the Knights now asked for hostages as a guarantee of Vytautas' loyalty. The Order demanded as hostages his two brothers Sigismund and Tautvilas, wife Anna, daughter Sophia, sister Rymgajla, brother-in-law Ivan Olshanski, and a number of other nobles.

Jogaila, later known as Wladyslaw II Jagiello Jogaila (Wladyslaw II).jpg
Jogaila, later known as Władysław II Jagiełło

In May, a delegation of 31 Samogitian nobles arrived in Königsberg and promised loyalty to Vytautas by signing the Treaty of Königsberg. [10] The joint forces of Vytautas and the Teutonic Knights consisted largely of volunteers and mercenaries from western Europe, notably from France, the German states, and England. Henry, Earl of Derby, the future King Henry IV of England [13] and Marshal of France Jean Le Maingre were among the participants. [14] The English crusaders left detailed records of their actions in Prussia and Lithuania, and their exploits were mentioned by Geoffrey Chaucer in the Canterbury Tales, possibly as a compliment to the English knights and the future king. [15] In the meantime, Jogaila achieved some military successes; his forces captured several castles in Podlaskie, leaving them to be guarded by Polish garrisons, and took Hrodna in April 1390 after a six-week siege. [14]

The newly assembled coalition organized a number of small campaigns in Lithuania; the largest was undertaken at the end of summer. During this campaign the Knights burned wooden castles at Kernavė, possibly the first capital of Lithuania, which never recovered from the destruction. [16] While the army was laying siege to Georgenburg, Grand Master Conrad Zöllner von Rothenstein died. The coalition decided to abandon this siege and march on Vilnius instead, as such a large army could not easily be re-assembled. [14] On 11 September 1390, the joint forces launched a five-week siege on the city. [7] Vilnius' castles were held by Skirgaila, commanding combined Polish, Lithuanian, and Ruthenian troops. [17] The Knights reduced much of the outer city to ruins [13] and managed to destroy the Crooked Castle, which was never rebuilt. [18] Vytautas' brother Tautvilas Kęstutaitis and Jogaila's brother Karigaila died during the siege. [6] The besiegers ran into various difficulties. Their supplies of gunpowder were dwindling, the weather was deteriorating, the terms of service for some volunteers from western Europe ended, and the Knights needed a new Grand Master. [19] They decided to return to Prussia. The siege did not bring an end to the conflict, but it demonstrated an increased dissatisfaction with Jogaila among the regional inhabitants. [7]

1391–1392

Vytautas the Great Vytautas the great.jpg
Vytautas the Great

On January 21, 1391, Vytautas' only daughter, Sophia of Lithuania, married Vasili I of Russia, Grand Duke of Moscow. This alliance strengthened Vytautas' influence in Slavic lands and represented a potential new ally against Poland. [9] At the same time, Jogaila's brother Lengvenis was losing his power in Veliky Novgorod to Moscow. [20] The Teutonic Knights were idled during the protracted selection of their new Grand Master, Konrad von Wallenrode; their general chapter delayed his election. [19] In May 1391, the new master mortgaged Złotoria (Slatoria), a castle near Thorn, from Władysław Opolczyk, count palatine of Sigismund of Hungary, for 6,632 guldens. [21] [22] This angered Jogaila and he invaded Dobrzyń Land, but was driven away. [10]

Von Wallenrode called for new volunteers from France, England, and Scotland. Among those who responded was William Douglas of Nithsdale. [23] During the autumn of 1391 the Teutonic Knights organized another campaign against Vilnius. [6] In Kaunas they organized a lavish feast, [23] which was prominently featured in Konrad Wallenrod , an 1828 poem by Adam Mickiewicz. They devastated the nearby towns of Ukmergė and Maišiagala, but lacked the resources for a second siege on Vilnius. [6] In November 1391 Vytautas attacked the areas near Merkinė and Hrodna, cutting off the easiest communication route between Jogaila and Skirgaila. [24]

In the meantime the Knights were buying lands in Prussia. In May 1392, von Wallenrode began negotiations with Sigismund of Hungary to buy Neumark for 500,000 guldens. [25] Negotiations fell apart as the title to the land was contested by several dukes. [26] The Neumark purchase was closed with Jobst of Moravia only in 1402. During July 1392, the Knights agreed to pay Władysław Opolczyk 50,000 guldens for the Dobrzyń Land, [25] which had been contested among Piast dukes since 1377. [27] Opolczyk, the ruler of Opole in Silesia, had little interest in the volatile regions to his north. [27] In 1392, he circulated a proposal to partition Poland among the Teutonic Knights, the Holy Roman Empire, Silesia, and Hungary, but it was rejected. [28] These purchases by the Knights threatened Poland's northern borders. [25]

Neither Jogaila nor Vytautas had gained a clear advantage and the territories of the Grand Duchy affected by the civil war were being devastated. [5] Polish nobles were dissatisfied with the war; Jogaila was spending a great deal of time on Lithuanian matters and the expected benefits of the Union of Krewo had not materialized. [9] The Union was meant to strengthen Polish control over Galicia, Moldavia, and Wallachia rather than to create fresh troubles in the north. [25] Jogaila was preoccupied with the management of his court, battles in the southeast, and his sickly wife. [25] He attempted to replace Skirgaila with his younger brother Vygantas, but this brother died under unclear circumstances – according to rumor he was poisoned by either Vytautas or Skirgaila. [23] Klemens Moskarzewski was replaced with Jan Oleśnicki from Kraków as governor of Vilnius. [25] Jogaila decided to seek a compromise with Vytautas. [6]

Peace treaty

In spring 1392, Jogaila proposed a compromise through his envoy, Henry of Masovia, Bishop of Płock: Vytautas would become the Grand Duke of Lithuania if he would recognize Jogaila as the Supreme Duke. [6] By summer, Vytautas had secured the release of many of the hostages he had given to the Knights, and accepted the offer. [9] [25] Since this agreement with Jogaila was reached in secret, the Knights suspected nothing when Vytautas invited them to the festivities at his headquarters, the Ritterswerder Castle on an island in the Neman River. [6] Most of the prominent guests were taken prisoner and Vytautas' army proceeded to attack and destroy the undermanned wooden castles of Ritterswerder, Metenburg, and Neugarten (New Hrodna) near Hrodna. [20] [25] [29]

The Ostrów Agreement, formalizing the arrangement and ending the civil war, was signed on August 4, 1392. Vytautas became Grand Duke and reclaimed his patrimony in Trakai while Skirgaila was compensated with the Principality of Kiev, where he died in 1397. [5] While Vytautas was technically a vassal of Jogaila, he exercised considerable power in the Grand Duchy. His independence was legalized in the 1401 Union of Vilnius and Radom. [30] Vytautas ruled Lithuania until his death in 1430; his relationship with Jogaila during these years is sometimes likened to the peaceful power-sharing demonstrated by their fathers Algirdas and Kęstutis. [28] The Knights, betrayed for the second time, resumed their wars against Lithuania. They sought to take Samogitia, which Vytautas had twice promised them. The Treaty of Salynas was signed in 1398, leaving Samogitia to the Knights, to quiet the Duchy's western front while Vytautas was organizing a major campaign against the Golden Horde. Vytautas suffered a major defeat at the Battle of the Vorskla River in 1399. [5] The cousins joined their forces at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, which ended the threat from the Teutonic Orders. [2]

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Karigaila was a son of Algirdas, Grand Duke of Lithuania, and his second wife Uliana of Tver. He became the ruler of Mstsislaw after he captured it from the Principality of Smolensk. He is sometimes mistaken for his brother Constantine, who was the founder of the House of Czartoryski.

Lithuanian Civil War (1381–1384)

The Lithuanian Civil War of 1381–1384 was the first struggle for power between the cousins Jogaila, Grand Duke of Lithuania and later King of Poland, and Vytautas the Great. It began after Jogaila signed the Treaty of Dovydiškės with the Teutonic Knights which was aimed against his uncle Kęstutis, father of Vytautas. Kęstutis briefly seized power in the Grand Duchy, but was betrayed by adherents of Jogaila primarily from Vilnius. During negotiations for a truce Kęstutis and Vytautas were arrested and transported to the Kreva Castle. Kęstutis died there a week later but Vytautas managed to escape and then sought an alliance with the Teutonic Knights. Subsequently their joint forces raided Lithuanian lands. Eventually the cousins were reconciled as Jogaila needed internal stability in anticipation of negotiations with the Grand Duchy of Moscow and the Kingdom of Poland regarding the possible Christianization of Lithuania. The war did not settle the power struggle; it continued during the next Lithuanian Civil War (1389–1392) which was resolved by the signing of the Ostrów Agreement. After more than ten years of struggle, Vytautas finally became the Grand Duke of Lithuania and ruled the country for thirty-eight years.

The Treaty of Königsberg was signed in Königsberg (Królewiec) on 30 January 1384, during the Lithuanian Civil War (1381–1384) between Vytautas the Great and representatives of the Teutonic Knights. Vytautas waged a civil against his cousin Jogaila, Grand Duke of Lithuania and future King of Poland, and allied himself with the Teutonic Knights. In order to secure Teutonic support in the civil war, Vytautas signed the treaty and granted Samogitia up to the Nevėžis River and Kaunas to the Knights. In 1382 Jogaila promised the Knights Samogitia only up to the Dubysa River, but never ratified the Treaty of Dubysa. Samogitia was important for the Knights as this territory physically separated them from uniting with the Livonian order in the north. Vytautas also promised to become Order's vassal. In February several Samogitian regions acknowledged their support to Vytautas and the Knights.

Peace of Raciąż

Peace of Raciąż was a treaty signed on 22 May 1404 between Kingdom of Poland, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Teutonic Knights, regarding the control of the Dobrzyń Land and Samogitia. Poland in essence confirmed the Treaty of Kalisz of 1342 and Lithuania – the Treaty of Salynas of 1398. The treaty was not stable and the situation soon changed with the Polish-Lithuanian–Teutonic War of 1409–1411.

Samogitian uprisings

Samogitian uprisings refer to two uprisings by the Samogitians against the Teutonic Knights in 1401–1404 and 1409. Samogitia was granted to the Teutonic Knights by Vytautas the Great, Grand Duke of Lithuania, several times in order to enlist Knights' support for his other military affairs. The local population resisted Teutonic rule and asked Vytautas to protect them. The first uprising was unsuccessful and Vytautas had to reconfirm his previous promises to transfer Samogitia in the Peace of Raciąż. The second uprising provoked the Knights to declare war on Poland. Hostilities escalated and resulted in the Battle of Grunwald (1410), one of the biggest battles of medieval Europe. The Knights were soundly defeated by the joint Polish–Lithuanian forces, but Vytautas and Jogaila, King of Poland, were unable to capitalize on their victory. Conflicts regarding Samogitia, both diplomatic and military, dragged until the Treaty of Melno (1422).

References

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  2. 1 2 Michaud, Claude (2005). "The Kingdoms of Central Europe in the Fourteenth Century". The New Cambridge Medieval History, c.1300–c.1415. VI. Cambridge University Press. pp. 755–756. ISBN   0-521-36290-3.
  3. 1 2 Urban, William (2006). Samogitian Crusade. Chicago: Lithuanian Research and Studies Center. pp. 193–194. ISBN   0-929700-56-2.
  4. ↑ Stone, Daniel Z. (2001). The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386–1795. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 16. ISBN   0-295-98093-1.
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  13. 1 2 Turnbull, Stephen (2004). Crusader Castles of the Teutonic Knights, Vol. 2: The Stone Castles of Latvia and Estonia, 1185-1560. Osprey Publishing. pp. 53–54. ISBN   1-84176-712-3.
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  15. ↑ Skeat, Walter W. (1900). The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer (2nd ed.). Oxford: The Clarendon Press. p. 7. ISBN   1-60520-523-0.
  16. ↑ "History". Administration of the State Cultural reserve of Kernavė. Retrieved 2009-05-07.
  17. ↑ Jasienica, Paweł (1992) [1963]. Polska Jagiellonów (in Polish). Warsaw: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy. pp. 83–84. ISBN   83-06-01796-X.
  18. ↑ Jovaiša, Eugenijus (2002). "Vilniaus pilys". Gimtoji istorija. Nuo 7 iki 12 klasės (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Elektroninės leidybos namai. ISBN   9986-9216-9-4. Archived from the original on 2008-03-03. Retrieved 2008-06-30.
  19. 1 2 Urban, William (2006). Samogitian Crusade. Chicago: Lithuanian Research and Studies Center. pp. 200–201. ISBN   0-929700-56-2.
  20. 1 2 Ivinskis, Zenonas (1978). Lietuvos istorija iki Vytauto Didžiojo mirties (in Lithuanian). Rome: Lietuvių katalikų mokslo akademija. pp. 307–308. LCC   79346776.
  21. ↑ Hoensch, Jörg K. (1997). "König Kaiser Sigismund, der deutsche Orden und Polen-Litauen. Stationen einer problembeladenen Beziehung". Zeitschrift für Ostmitteleuropa-forschung (in German). Marburg: J.G. Herder-Institut. 1 (46): 7. ISSN   0948-8294.
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  24. ↑ Urban, William (2006). Samogitian Crusade. Chicago: Lithuanian Research and Studies Center. p. 212. ISBN   0-929700-56-2.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Urban, William (2003). "Vytautas and Jagiello, I". Tannenberg and After. Chicago: Lithuanian Research and Studies Center. pp. 1–50. ISBN   0-929700-25-2.
  26. ↑ Wyatt, Walter James (1876). The History of Prussia. II. London: Longmans, Green and co. p. 10. ISBN   1-142-41553-8. OCLC   1599888.
  27. 1 2 Urban, William (2006). Samogitian Crusade. Chicago: Lithuanian Research and Studies Center. p. 206. ISBN   0-929700-56-2.
  28. 1 2 Lukowski, Jerzy; Zawadzki, Hubert (2006). A Concise History of Poland. Cambridge University Press. p. 44. ISBN   0-521-85332-X.
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