Lysobacter

Last updated

Lysobacter
Lenz-hyphae.jpg
Attachment of Lysobacter enzymogenes strain C3 to fungal hyphae of Magnaporthe oryzae (also known as rice blast and gray leaf spot of turfgrass)
Scientific classification
Domain:
Bacteria
Phylum:
Pseudomonadota
Class:
Gammaproteobacteria
Order:
Xanthomonadales
Family:
Xanthomonadaceae
Genus:
Lysobacter

The genus Lysobacter belongs to the family Xanthomonadaceae within the Gammaproteobacteria and includes at least 46 named species, including: Lysobacter enzymogenes, L. antibioticus, L. gummosus, L. brunescens, L. defluvii, L. niabensis, L. niastensis, L. daejeonensis, L. yangpyeongensis, L. koreensis, L. concretionis, L. spongiicola, and L. capsici. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] Lysobacter spp. were originally grouped with myxobacteria because they shared the distinctive trait of gliding motility, but they uniquely display a number of traits that distinguish them from other taxonomically and ecologically related microbes including high genomic G+C content (typically ranging between 65 and 72%) and the lack of flagella. [2] [9] The feature of gliding motility alone has piqued the interest of many, since the role of gliding bacteria in soil ecology is poorly understood. In addition, while a number of different mechanisms have been proposed for gliding motility among a wide range of bacterial species, [10] the genetic mechanism in Lysobacter remains unknown. Members of the Lysobacter group have gained broad interest for production of extracellular enzymes. [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] The group is also regarded as a rich source for production of novel antibiotics, such as β-lactams containing substituted side chains, macrocyclic lactams and macrocyclic peptide or depsipeptide antibiotics like the katanosins. [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35]

Contents

Habitat

Lysobacter spp. have been described as ubiquitous inhabitants of soil and water. [2] Their presence has been largely ignored, since members often are minor components in sample screenings when using conventional isolation procedures. However, because of improved molecular methods of identification and better descriptions for the genus, their agricultural relevance is becoming increasingly evident, especially as members of ecologically significant microbial communities associated with soil and plants. [4] [9] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] Recent evidence suggests Lysobacter spp. may occupy a wide range of ecological niches beyond those associated with plants, including a broad range of 'extreme' environments. For example, 16S rDNA phylogenetic analyses show Lysobacter clades that include sequences obtained from hydrothermal vents, isolates from Mt. Pinatubo mud flows and upflow anaerobic blanket sludge reactors, and an iron-oxidizing, microaerophilic lithotroph. [1] [4] [9] [43]

Lysobacter gummosus was discovered living on the skin of redback salamanders and producing 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol, a chemical which inhibits the growth of certain pathogenic fungi. [44]

Biological control

The potential of Lysobacter species as biological control agents for plant diseases has been recognized. [9] [43] Among L. enzymogenes strains, C3 is the most thoroughly characterized strain at both the molecular and biological levels. The ecological versatility of the strain is reflected by the range of diseases it is able to control, as well as the various plant hosts and plant parts it is capable of colonizing. For example, L. enzymogenes strain C3 (erroneously identified as Stenotrophomonas maltophilia) has been reported to control foliar diseases such as leaf spot of tall fescue caused by Bipolaris sorokiniana , [45] bean rust caused by Uromyces appendiculatus [46] and Fusarium head blight of wheat. [47] L. enzymogenes strain C3 also has been reported to suppress soilborne diseases, such as brown patch in turfgrass caused by Rhizoctonia solani, [48] the seedling disease Pythium damping-off of sugarbeet [49] and summer patch disease of Kentucky bluegrass caused by the root-infecting Magnaporthe poae . [50] Lysobacter sp. SB-K88 has been found to suppress damping-off disease in sugar beet and spinach through antibiosis and characteristic root colonization in perpendicular fashion Islam et al. (2005).

Disease-suppressive soils

Lysobacter species have also been isolated from soils suppressive to Rhizoctonia solani . [51] Clay soils with natural suppressiveness against Rhizoctonia contained higher numbers of antagonistic isolates of L. gummosus, L. antibioticus, and/or L. capsici. Although the mechanism behind this phenomenon is not yet understood, it appeared that growing grass/clover increased the number of these Lysobacter species, as well as the Rhizoctonia suppressiveness.

Mechanisms of antagonism

Originally characterized as a biological control agent for plant diseases, L. enzymogenes strain C3 is unique in that it expresses a wide range of mechanisms contributing to microbial antagonism and biological control that are not shared by all strains of the species. The strain produces numerous extracellular enzymes that contribute to biocontrol activity, including multiple forms of β-1,3-glucanases and chitinases. [19] [52] The strain also has been demonstrated to induce systemic resistance in certain plants, protecting them from pathogen infection. [53] [54] In addition, recent studies have indicated important roles for secondary metabolites with antibiotic activity and biosurfactant activity in fungal antagonism. [50] Several of these traits are globally controlled by a regulator encoded by the clp gene. [49] [50] Mutations in clp are intriguing for two reasons. First, the mutant phenotype implies that a broad range of genes is involved in secreted antimicrobials associated with the clp regulon, many of which remain unidentified. The second is that mutations in clp result in significant loss of extracellular enzyme activities and antimicrobial activity displayed by L. enzymogenes strain C3. These activities normally are phenotypically overwhelming and often lead to masking of other phenotypes in standard assays, making mutation effects of non-related genes difficult or nearly impossible to evaluate. However, strains harboring clp gene mutations provide a means to separate clp-regulated phenotypes from others (such as that describe below), thus making their evaluation feasible. Biological control and mode of actions of disease suppression by Lysobacter spp. has been reviewed Islam 2011.

Lysobacter genetics

L. enzymogenes strain C3 is a genetically tractable strain allowing for easy construction of gene knockouts, supporting its use as a model genetic system for unraveling the molecular basis of pathogenicity, as well as identifying mechanisms of microbial antagonism and biological control. Indeed, a number of derivative strains of L. enzymogenes strain C3 already have been constructed, including mutants affected in structural genes encoding enzyme activities, the regulatory clp gene and various combinations thereof. [19] [49]

Species

The genus has 46 known species (July 2018): [55] [56]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gram-positive bacteria</span> Bacteria that give a positive result in the Gram stain test

In bacteriology, gram-positive bacteria are bacteria that give a positive result in the Gram stain test, which is traditionally used to quickly classify bacteria into two broad categories according to their type of cell wall.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Horizontal gene transfer</span> Type of nonhereditary genetic change

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) or lateral gene transfer (LGT) is the movement of genetic material between unicellular and/or multicellular organisms other than by the ("vertical") transmission of DNA from parent to offspring (reproduction). HGT is an important factor in the evolution of many organisms. HGT is influencing scientific understanding of higher order evolution while more significantly shifting perspectives on bacterial evolution.

<i>Pseudomonas</i> Genus of Gram-negative bacteria

Pseudomonas is a genus of Gram-negative, Gammaproteobacteria, belonging to the family Pseudomonadaceae and containing 191 described species. The members of the genus demonstrate a great deal of metabolic diversity and consequently are able to colonize a wide range of niches. Their ease of culture in vitro and availability of an increasing number of Pseudomonas strain genome sequences has made the genus an excellent focus for scientific research; the best studied species include P. aeruginosa in its role as an opportunistic human pathogen, the plant pathogen P. syringae, the soil bacterium P. putida, and the plant growth-promoting P. fluorescens, P. lini, P. migulae, and P. graminis.

<i>Pseudomonas fluorescens</i> Species of bacterium

Pseudomonas fluorescens is a common Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium. It belongs to the Pseudomonas genus; 16S rRNA analysis as well as phylogenomic analysis has placed P. fluorescens in the P. fluorescens group within the genus, to which it lends its name.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Acidobacteriota</span> Phylum of bacteria

Acidobacteriota is a phylum of Gram-negative bacteria. Its members are physiologically diverse and ubiquitous, especially in soils, but are under-represented in culture.

<i>Acinetobacter</i> Genus of bacteria

Acinetobacter is a genus of gram-negative bacteria belonging to the wider class of Gammaproteobacteria. Acinetobacter species are oxidase-negative, exhibit twitching motility, and occur in pairs under magnification.

<i>Agrobacterium</i> Genus of bacteria

Agrobacterium is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria established by H. J. Conn that uses horizontal gene transfer to cause tumors in plants. Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the most commonly studied species in this genus. Agrobacterium is well known for its ability to transfer DNA between itself and plants, and for this reason it has become an important tool for genetic engineering.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Colistin</span> Antibiotic

Colistin, also known as polymyxin E, is an antibiotic medication used as a last-resort treatment for multidrug-resistant Gram-negative infections including pneumonia. These may involve bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, or Acinetobacter. It comes in two forms: colistimethate sodium can be injected into a vein, injected into a muscle, or inhaled, and colistin sulfate is mainly applied to the skin or taken by mouth. Colistimethate sodium is a prodrug; it is produced by the reaction of colistin with formaldehyde and sodium bisulfite, which leads to the addition of a sulfomethyl group to the primary amines of colistin. Colistimethate sodium is less toxic than colistin when administered parenterally. In aqueous solutions it undergoes hydrolysis to form a complex mixture of partially sulfomethylated derivatives, as well as colistin. Resistance to colistin began to appear as of 2015.

Pseudomonas putida is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped, saprotrophic soil bacterium.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Halomonadaceae</span> Family of bacteria

Halomonadaceae is a family of halophilic Pseudomonadota.

<i>Stenotrophomonas maltophilia</i> Species of bacterium

Stenotrophomonas maltophilia is an aerobic, nonfermentative, Gram-negative bacterium. It is an uncommon bacterium and human infection is difficult to treat. Initially classified as Bacterium bookeri, then renamed Pseudomonas maltophilia, S. maltophilia was also grouped in the genus Xanthomonas before eventually becoming the type species of the genus Stenotrophomonas in 1993.

Eggerthella is a bacterial genus of Actinomycetota, in the family Coriobacteriaceae. Members of this genus are anaerobic, non-sporulating, non-motile, Gram-positive bacilli that grow singly, as pairs, or in short chains. They are found in the human colon and feces and have been implicated as a cause of ulcerative colitis, liver and anal abscesses and systemic bacteremia.

The Gemmatimonadota are a phylum of bacteria established in 2003. The phylum contains two classes Gemmatimonadetes and Longimicrobia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gammaproteobacteria</span> Class of bacteria

Gammaproteobacteria is a class of bacteria in the phylum Pseudomonadota. It contains about 250 genera, which makes it the most genera-rich taxon of the Prokaryotes. Several medically, ecologically, and scientifically important groups of bacteria belong to this class. It is composed by all Gram-negative microbes and is the most phylogenetically and physiologically diverse class of Proteobacteria.

<i>Enterobacter cloacae</i> Species of bacterium

Enterobacter cloacae is a clinically significant Gram-negative, facultatively-anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium.

The Synergistota is a phylum of anaerobic bacteria that show Gram-negative staining and have rod/vibrioid cell shape. Although Synergistota have a diderm cell envelope, the genes for various proteins involved in lipopolysaccharides biosynthesis have not yet been detected in Synergistota, indicating that they may have an atypical outer cell envelope. The Synergistota inhabit a majority of anaerobic environments including animal gastrointestinal tracts, soil, oil wells, and wastewater treatment plants and they are also present in sites of human diseases such as cysts, abscesses, and areas of periodontal disease. Due to their presence at illness related sites, the Synergistota are suggested to be opportunistic pathogens but they can also be found in healthy individuals in the microbiome of the umbilicus and in normal vaginal flora. Species within this phylum have also been implicated in periodontal disease, gastrointestinal infections and soft tissue infections. Other species from this phylum have been identified as significant contributors in the degradation of sludge for production of biogas in anaerobic digesters and are potential candidates for use in renewable energy production through their production of hydrogen gas. All of the known Synergistota species and genera are presently part of a single class (Synergistia), order (Synergistiales), and family (Synergistaceae).

<i>Staphylococcus</i> Genus of Gram-positive bacteria

Staphylococcus is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria in the family Staphylococcaceae from the order Bacillales. Under the microscope, they appear spherical (cocci), and form in grape-like clusters. Staphylococcus species are facultative anaerobic organisms.

Streptomyces isolates have yielded the majority of human, animal, and agricultural antibiotics, as well as a number of fundamental chemotherapy medicines. Streptomyces is the largest antibiotic-producing genus of Actinomycetota, producing chemotherapy, antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic drugs, and immunosuppressants. Streptomyces isolates are typically initiated with the aerial hyphal formation from the mycelium.

Streptomyces lavendulae is a species of bacteria from the genus Streptomyces. It is isolated from soils globally and is known for its production of medically useful biologically active metabolites. To see a photo of this organism click here.

A. C. Matin is an Indian-American microbiologist, immunologist, academician and researcher. He is a professor of microbiology and immunology at Stanford University School of Medicine.

References

  1. 1 2 Bae, H. S., W. T. Im, and S. T. Lee. 2005. Lysobacter concretionis sp. nov., isolated from anaerobic granules in an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 55:1155–61.
  2. 1 2 3 Christensen, P., and F. Cook. 1978. Lysobacter, a new genus of nonfruiting, gliding bacteria with a high base ratio. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 28:367–393.
  3. ↑ Lee, J. W., W. T. Im, M. K. Kim, and D. C. Yang. 2006. Lysobacter koreensis sp. nov., isolated from a ginseng field. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 56:231-5.
  4. 1 2 3 Weon, H. Y., B. Y. Kim, Y. K. Baek, S. H. Yoo, S. W. Kwon, E. Stackebrandt, and S. J. Go. 2006. Two novel species, Lysobacter daejeonensis sp. nov. and Lysobacter yangpyeongensis sp. nov., isolated from Korean greenhouse soils. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 56:947-51.
  5. ↑ Weon, H. Y., B. Y. Kim, M. K. Kim, S. H. Yoo, S. W. Kwon, S. J. Go, and E. Stackebrandt. 2007. Lysobacter niabensis sp. nov. and Lysobacter niastensis sp. nov., isolated from greenhouse soils in Korea. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 57:548-51.
  6. ↑ Yassin, A. F., W.-M. Chen, H. Hupfer, C. Siering, R. M. Kroppenstedt, A. B. Arun, W.-A. Lai, F.-T. Shen, P. D. Rekha, and C. C. Young. 2007. Lysobacter defluvii sp. nov., isolated from municipal solid waste. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 57:1131–1136.
  7. ↑ Romanenko, L.A., Uchino, M., Tanaka, N., Frolova, G.M., Mikhailov, V.V., 2008. Lysobacter spongiicola sp. nov., isolated from a deep-sea sponge. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 58, 370–374.
  8. ↑ Park, J.H., Kim, R., Aslam, Z., Jeon, C.O., Chung, Y.R., 2008. Lysobacter capsici sp. nov., with antimicrobial activity, isolated from the rhizosphere of pepper, and emended description of the genus Lysobacter. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 58, 387–392.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Sullivan, R. F., M. A. Holtman, G. J. Zylstra, J. F. White, and D. Y. Kobayashi. 2003. Taxonomic positioning of two biological control agents for plant diseases as Lysobacter enzymogenes based on phylogenetic analysis of 16S rDNA, fatty acid composition and phenotypic characteristics. Journal of Applied Microbiology 94:1079–1086.
  10. ↑ McBride, M. J. 2001. Bacterial gliding motility: Multiple mechanisms for cell movement over surfaces. Annual Review of Microbiology 55:49–75.
  11. ↑ Ahmed, K., S. Chohnan, H. Ohashi, T. Hirata, T. Masaki, and F. Sakiyama. 2003. Purification, bacteriolytic activity, and specificity of β-lytic protease from Lysobacter sp. IB-9374. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering 95:27–34.
  12. ↑ Allpress, J. D., G. Mountain, and P. C. Gowland. 2002. Production, purification and characterization of an extracellular keratinase from Lysobacter NCIMB 9497. Lett Appl Microbiol 34:337-42.
  13. ↑ Au, S., K. L. Roy, and R. G. von Tigerstrom. 1991. Nucleotide sequence and characterization of the gene for secreted alkaline phosphatase from Lysobacter enzymogenes. J Bacteriol 173:4551-7.
  14. ↑ Chohnan, S., J. Nonaka, K. Teramoto, K. Taniguchi, Y. Kameda, H. Tamura, Y. Kurusu, S. Norioka, T. Masaki, and F. Sakiyama. 2002. Lysobacter strain with high lysyl endopeptidase production. FEMS Microbiol Lett 213:13–20.
  15. ↑ Chohnan, S., K. Shiraki, K. Yokota, M. Ohshima, N. Kuroiwa, K. Ahmed, T. Masaki, and F. Sakiyama. 2004. A second lysine-specific serine protease from Lysobacter sp. strain IB-9374. J Bacteriol 186:5093-100.
  16. ↑ Epstein, D. M., and P. C. Wensink. 1988. The α-lytic protease gene of Lysobacter enzymogenes. The nucleotide sequence predicts a large prepropeptide with homology to propeptides of other chymotrypsin-like enzymes. J Biol Chem 263:16586-90.
  17. ↑ Ogura, J., A. Toyoda, T. Kurosawa, A. L. Chong, S. Chohnan, and T. Masaki. 2006. Purification, characterization, and gene analysis of cellulase (Cel8A) from Lysobacter sp. IB-9374. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 70:2420-8.
  18. ↑ Palumbo, J. D., R. F. Sullivan, and D. Y. Kobayashi. 2003. Molecular characterization and expression in Escherichia coli of three β-1,3-Glucanase genes from Lysobacter enzymogenes Strain N4-7. J. Bacteriol. 185:4362–4370.
  19. 1 2 3 Palumbo, J. D., G. Y. Yuen, C. C. Jochum, K. Tatum, and D. Y. Kobayashi. 2005. Mutagenesis of β-1,3-glucanase genes in Lysobacter enzymogenes strain C3 results in reduced biological control activity toward Bipolaris leaf spot of tall fescue and Pythium damping-off of sugar beet. Phytopathology 95:701–707.
  20. ↑ von Tigerstrom, R. G. 1980. Extracellular nucleases of Lysobacter enzymogenes: production of the enzymes and purification and characterization of an endonuclease. Can J Microbiol 26:1029–37.
  21. ↑ von Tigerstrom, R. G. 1984. Production of two phosphatases by Lysobacter enzymogenes and purification and characterization of the extracellular enzyme. Appl Environ Microbiol 47:693-8.
  22. ↑ von Tigerstrom, R. G., and S. Stelmaschuk. 1987. Comparison of the phosphatases of Lysobacter enzymogenes with those of related bacteria. J Gen Microbiol 133:3121-7.
  23. ↑ Wright, D. S., L. D. Graham, and P. A. Jennings. 1998. Cloning of a Lysobacter enzymogenes gene that encodes an arginyl endopeptidase (endoproteinase Arg-C). Biochim Biophys Acta 1443:369-74.
  24. ↑ Bonner, D. P., J. O'Sullivan, S. K. Tanaka, J. M. Clark, and R. R. Whitney. 1988. Lysobactin, a novel antibacterial agent produced by Lysobacter sp. II. Biological properties. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 41:1745–51.
  25. ↑ Harada, S., S. Tsubotani, H. Ono, and H. Okazaki. 1984. Cephabacins, new cephem antibiotics of bacterial origin. II. Isolation and characterization. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 37:1536–45.
  26. ↑ Hashizume, H., S. Hattori, M. Igarashi, and Y. Akamatsu. 2004. Tripropeptin E, a new tripropeptin group antibiotic produced by Lysobacter sp. BMK333-48F3. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 57:394-9.
  27. ↑ Hashizume, H., S. Hirosawa, R. Sawa, Y. Muraoka, D. Ikeda, H. Naganawa, and M. Igarashi. 2004. Tripropeptins, novel antimicrobial agents produced by Lysobacter sp. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 57:52-8.
  28. ↑ Hashizume, H., M. Igarashi, S. Hattori, M. Hori, M. Hamada, and T. Takeuchi. 2001. Tripropeptins, novel antimicrobial agents produced by Lysobacter sp. I. Taxonomy, isolation and biological activities. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 54:1054-9.
  29. ↑ Kato, A., S. Nakaya, N. Kokubo, Y. Aiba, Y. Ohashi, H. Hirata, K. Fujii, and K. Harada. 1998. A new anti-MRSA antibiotic complex, WAP-8294A. I. Taxonomy, isolation and biological activities. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 51:929-35.
  30. ↑ Kimura, H., M. Izawa, and Y. Sumino. 1996. Molecular analysis of the gene cluster involved in cephalosporin biosynthesis from Lysobacterlactamgenus YK90. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 44:589–596.
  31. ↑ Meyers, E., R. Cooper, L. Dean, J. H. Johnson, D. S. Slusarchyk, W. H. Trejo, and P. D. Singh. 1985. Catacandins, novel anticandidal antibiotics of bacterial origin. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 38:1642-8.
  32. ↑ Nakayama, T., Y. Homma, Y. Hashidoko, J. Mizutani, and S. Tahara. 1999. Possible role of xanthobaccins produced by Stenotrophomonas sp strain SB-K88 in suppression of sugar beet damping-off disease. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 65:4334–4339.
  33. ↑ O'Sullivan, J., J. E. McCullough, A. A. Tymiak, D. R. Kirsch, W. H. Trejo, and P. A. Principe. 1988. Lysobactin, a novel antibacterial agent produced by Lysobacter sp. I. Taxonomy, isolation and partial characterization. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 41:1740-4.
  34. ↑ Ono, H., Y. Nozaki, N. Katayama, and H. Okazaki. 1984. Cephabacins, new cephem antibiotics of bacterial origin. I. Discovery and taxonomy of the producing organisms and fermentation. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 37:1528–35.
  35. ↑ Panthee, S; Hamamoto, H; Paudel, A; Sekimizu, K (November 2016). "Lysobacter species: a potential source of novel antibiotics". Archives of Microbiology. 198 (9): 839–45. doi:10.1007/s00203-016-1278-5. PMID   27541998.
  36. ↑ Folman, L. B., J. Postma, and J. A. Van Veen. 2001. Ecophysiological characterization of rhizosphere bacterial communities at different root locations and plant developmental stages of cucumber grown on rockwool. Microbial Ecology 42:586–597.
  37. ↑ Islam, M. T., Y. Hashidoko, A. Deora, T. Ito, and S. Tahara. 2005. Suppression of damping-off disease in host plants by the rhizoplane bacterium Lysobacter sp. Strain SB-K88 Is linked to plant colonization and antibiosis against soilborne Peronosporomycetes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71:3786–3796.
  38. ↑ Lee, M. S., J. O. Do, M. S. Park, S. Jung, K. H. Lee, K. S. Bae, S. J. Park, and S. B. Kim. 2006. Dominance of Lysobacter sp. in the rhizosphere of two coastal sand dune plant species, Calystegia soldanella and Elymus mollis. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 90:19–27.
  39. ↑ Lueders, T., R. Kindler, A. Miltner, M. W. Friedrich, and M. Kaestner. 2006. Identification of bacterial micropredators distinctively active in a soil microbial food web. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72:5342–5348.
  40. ↑ Nour, S. M., J. R. Lawrence, H. Zhu, G. D. W. Swerhone, M. Welsh, T. W. Welacky, and E. Topp. 2003. Bacteria associated with cysts of the soybean cyst nematode (Heterodera glycines). Applied and Environmental Microbiology 69:607–615.
  41. ↑ Roesti, D., K. Ineichen, O. Braissant, D. Redecker, A. Wiemken, and M. Aragno. 2005. Bacteria associated with spores of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi Glomus geosporum and Glomus constrictum. Appl Environ Microbiol 71:6673-9.
  42. ↑ Schmalenberger, A., and C. C. Tebbe. 2003. Bacterial diversity in maize rhizospheres: conclusions on the use of genetic profiles based on PCR-amplified partial small subunit rRNA genes in ecological studies. Molecular Ecology 12:251–261.
  43. 1 2 Folman, L. B., J. Postma, and J. A. van Veen. 2003. Characterisation of Lysobacter enzymogenes (Christensen and Cook 1978) strain 3.1T8, a powerful antagonist of fungal diseases of cucumber. Microbiological Research 158:107–115.
  44. ↑ Brucker RM, Baylor CM, Walters RL, Lauer A, Harris RN, Minbiole KPC. 2008. The identification of 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol as an antifungal metabolite produced by cutaneous bacteria of the salamander Plethodon cinereus. Journal of Chemical Ecology 34(1):39–43.
  45. ↑ Zhang, Z., and G. Y. Yuen. 1999. Biological control of Bipolaris sorakiniana on tall fescue by Stenotrophomonas maltophilia strain C3. Phytopathology 89:817–822.
  46. ↑ Yuen, G. Y., J. R. Steadman, D. T. Lindgren, D. Schaff, and C. Jochum. 2001. Bean rust biological control using bacterial agents. Crop Protection 20:395–402.
  47. ↑ Jochum, C. C., L. E. Osborne, and G. Y. Yuen. 2006. Fusarium head blight biological control with Lysobacter enzymogenes. Biological Control 39:336–344.
  48. ↑ Giesler, L. J., and G. Y. Yuen. 1998. Evaluation of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia strain C3 for biocontrol of brown patch disease. Crop Protection 17:509–513.
  49. 1 2 3 Kobayashi, D. Y., R. M. Reedy, J. D. Palumbo, J.-M. Zhou, and G. Y. Yuen. 2005. A clp gene homologue belonging to the crp gene family globally regulates lytic enzyme production, antimicrobial activity, and biological control activity expressed by Lysobacter enzymogenes strain C3. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71:261–269.
  50. 1 2 3 Kobayashi, D. Y., and G. Y. Yuen. 2005. The role of clp-regulated factors in antagonism against Magnaporthe poae and biological control of summer patch disease of Kentucky bluegrass by Lysobacter enzymogenes C3. Can J Microbiol 51:719-23.
  51. ↑ Postma, J., Schilder, M.T., Bloem, J., Van Leeuwen-Haagsma, W.K., 2008. Soil suppressiveness and functional diversity of the soil microflora in organic farming systems. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 40, 2394–2406.
  52. ↑ Zhang, Z., G. Y. Yuen, G. Sarath, and A. R. Penheiter. 2001. Chitinases from the plant disease biocontrol agent, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia C3. Phytopathology 91:204–211.
  53. ↑ Kilic-Ekici, O., and G. Y. Yuen. 2004. Comparison of strains of Lysobacter enzymogenes and PGPR for induction of resistance against Bipolaris sorokiniana in tall fescue. Biological Control 30:446–455.
  54. ↑ Kilic-Ekici, O., and G. Y. Yuen. 2003. Induced resistance as a mechanism of biological control by Lysobacter enzymogenes strain C3. Phytopathology 93:1103–1110.
  55. ↑ Opname van Lysobacter in DSMZ
  56. ↑ Lysobacter korlensis sp. nov. and Lysobacter burgurensis sp. nov., isolated from soil. door Lei Zhang e.a. (2011, International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology)
  57. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Parte, A.C. "Lysobacter". LPSN .
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.