Memory inhibition

Last updated

In psychology, memory inhibition is the ability not to remember irrelevant information. The scientific concept of memory inhibition should not be confused with everyday uses of the word "inhibition". Scientifically speaking, memory inhibition is a type of cognitive inhibition, which is the stopping or overriding of a mental process, in whole or in part, with or without intention. [1]

Contents

Memory inhibition is a critical component of an effective memory system. [2] While some memories are retained for a lifetime, most memories are forgotten. [3] According to evolutionary psychologists, forgetting is adaptive because it facilitates selectivity of rapid, efficient recollection. [4] For example, a person trying to remember where they parked their car would not want to remember every place they have ever parked. In order to remember something, therefore, it is essential not only to activate the relevant information, but also to inhibit irrelevant information.

There are many memory phenomena that seem to involve inhibition, although there is often debate about the distinction between interference and inhibition.

History

In the early days of psychology, the concept of inhibition was prevalent and influential (e.g., Breese, 1899; Pillsbury, 1908; Wundt, 1902). [1] These psychologists applied the concept of inhibition (and interference) to early theories of learning and forgetting. [5] Starting in 1894, German scientists Muller and Shumann conducted empirical studies that demonstrated how learning a second list of items interfered with memory of the first list. [5] Based on these experiments, Muller argued that the process of attention was based on facilitation. [6] Arguing for a different explanation, Wundt (1902) claimed that selective attention was accomplished by the active inhibition of unattended information, [6] and that to attend to one of several simultaneous stimuli, the others had to be inhibited. [1] American Psychologist Walter Pillsbury combined Muller and Wundt's arguments, claiming that attention both facilitates information that is wanted and inhibits information that is unwanted. [6] [7]

In the face of behaviorism during the late 1920s through the 1950s, and through the early growth of cognitive psychology in the late 1950s and early 1960s, [8] inhibition largely disappeared as a theory. [1] Instead, classical interference theory dominated memory research until as late as 1960. [5] By the early 1970s, however, classical interference theory began to decline due to its reliance on associationism, [8] its inability to explain the facts of interference or how interference applies to everyday life, and to newly published reports on proactive and retroactive inhibition. [5]

Since the mid-1980s, there has been a renewed interest in understanding the role of inhibition in cognition. [6] Research on a wide variety of psychological processes, including attention, perception, learning and memory, psycholinguistics, cognitive development, aging, learning disabilities, and neuropsychology, suggests that resistance to interference (which implies capacity for inhibition) is an important part of cognition. [5]

More recently, researchers suggest that the hippocampus plays a role in the regulation of disliked and competing memories, and fMRI studies have shown hippocampus activity during inhibition processes. [9]

Empirical research

Part-set cuing effect

The "part-set cuing effect" was initially discovered by Slamecka (1968), who found that providing a portion of to-be-remembered items as test cues often impairs retrieval of the remaining un-cued items compared with performance in a no-cue (free-recall) control condition. [10] Such an effect is intriguing because normally cues are expected to aid recall (e.g., Tulving & Pearlstone, 1966). [11] A prominent figure in retrieval-based inhibition research, Henry L. Roediger III was another one of the first psychologists to propose the idea that retrieving an item reduces the subsequent accessibility of other stored items. [12] Becoming aware of the part-set cueing effect reduces the effect, such that relearning part of a set of previously learned associations can improve recall of the non-relearned associations. [13]

Hasher and Zacks' inhibition account of aging

Using inhibition to explain memory processes began with the work of Hasher and Zacks (1988), which focused on the cognitive costs associated with aging and bridging the attention-memory gap. [1] Hasher and Zacks found that older adults show impairments on tasks that require inhibiting irrelevant information in working memory, and these impairments may lead to problems in a variety of contexts. [14]

Retrieval-induced forgetting

Anderson and Spellman's model of retrieval-induced forgetting suggests that when items compete during retrieval, an inhibitory process will serve to suppress those competitors. For instance, retrieval of one meaning for a word (e.g. the verb meaning of the word sock) will tend to inhibit the dominant meaning of that word (e.g. the noun meaning of sock). [15] In 1995, Anderson and Spellman conducted a three-phase study using their retrieval-induced forgetting model to demonstrate unlearning as inhibition. [16]

Anderson and Spellman observed that items that shared a semantic relationship with practiced information was less recallable. Using the example from above, recall of items related to practiced information, including tomato and strawberry was lower than recall for cracker, even though strawberry is part of a different pair. This finding suggests that associative competition by explicit category cue is not the only factor in retrieval difficulty. They theorized that the brain suppresses, or inhibits, non-practiced attributes. [1] This explains why an item that is very similar to tomato, but not from the same pair, also exhibits decreased recall rate.

"Think/no-think" paradigm and intentional inhibition

During the recovered memory debate of the 1990s, cognitive psychologists were dubious about whether specific memories could be repressed. One stumbling block was that repression had not been demonstrated in a research study. In 2001, researchers Anderson and Green claimed to have found laboratory evidence of suppression. [17] They trained their participants with a list of unrelated word pairs (such as ordeal-roach), so they could respond with the second member of the pair (roach) when they saw the other member (ordeal). The more frequently participants had tried to not think about a particular word, the less likely they were to retrieve it on a final memory test. This impairment even occurred when participants were given an "independent probe" test, i.e. given a similar category (insect) instead of the original cue (roach), and asked to fill in the blank on the memory test: insect-r_____. According to Anderson and Green, the fact that participants had a decreased ability to recall items they were told to forget strongly supports the existence of an inhibitory control mechanism and the idea that people have the ability to suppress unwanted memories. [18]

Though Anderson & Green's (2001) results have been replicated several times, a group of prominent psychology researchers using the same methodology as the original study were unable to replicate even the basic result (Bulevich, Roediger, Balota, & Butler, 2006). [18] They determined that suppression is not a robust experimental phenomenon in the think/no-think paradigm and suggested that Anderson and Green's findings could be explained by retroactive interference, or simply thinking about X when told to "not think" about Y. [18]

Amnesia for trauma or abuse

Amnesia, the forgetting of important personal information, usually occurs because of disease or injury to the brain, while psychogenic amnesia, which involves a loss of personal identity and has psychological causes, is rare. [3] Nonetheless, a range of studies have concluded that at least 10% of physical and sexual abuse victims forget the abuse. [19] [20] [21] Some studies claim that the rate of delayed recall of many forms of traumatic experiences (including natural disasters, kidnapping, torture and more) averages among studies at approximately 15%, with the highest rates resulting from child sexual abuse, military combat, and witnessing a family member murdered. [22] A 1996 interview survey of 711 women reported that forgetting and later remembering childhood sexual abuse is not uncommon; more than a quarter of the respondents who reported abuse also reported forgetting the abuse for some period of time and then recalling it on their own. Of those who reported abuse, less than 2% reported that the recall of the abuse was assisted by a therapist or other professional. [23] Other studies show that people who have experienced trauma usually remember it, not forget it. McNally (2001) found that women who report having either repressed or recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse have no worse memory for trauma cue words than women who have never been sexually abused. [24] Similarly, McNally (1998) found that women who were sexually abused as children and who developed PTSD as a result of their abuse will not have any more trouble recalling trauma related words than healthy adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse or women who were never abused as children. [25]

Although the rate of recall of previously forgotten traumatic events was shown by Elliot and Briere (1996) to be unaffected by whether or not the victim had a history of being in psychotherapy, [22] individuals who report repressed memories are more susceptible to producing false memories than individuals who could always recall the memory. [25] Williams found that among women with confirmed histories of sexual abuse, approximately 38% did not recall the abuse 17 years later, especially when it was perpetrated by someone familiar to them. [26] Hopper cites several studies which indicate that some abuse victims will have intervals of complete amnesia for their abuse. [27] Peer reviewed and clinical studies have documented the existence of recovered memory; one website lists 43 legal cases where an individual whose claim to have recovered a repressed memory has been accepted by a court. [28] Traumatic amnesia, which allegedly involves the forgetting of specific traumatic events for long periods of time, is highly controversial, as is repression, the psychodynamic explanation of traumatic amnesia. [3] Because these concepts lack good empirical support, psychological scientists are skeptical about the validity of "recovered memories", and argue that some therapists, through suggestive techniques, have (un)knowingly encouraged false memories of victimization. [3]

Evidence against

The idea that subjects can actively inhibit a memory has many critics. [15] MacLeod (2003) challenged the idea of inhibition in cognitive control, arguing that inhibition can be attributed to conflict resolution, which is the error-prone act of choosing between two similar values that do not necessarily have the same pair. [29] Re-examine the pairs from above: Food-Cracker, Food-Strawberry, Red-Tomato, and Red-Blood. Memory inhibition theories suggest that recall of strawberry decreases when recall of tomato decreases because tomato's attributes are inhibited when red-blood is learned. MacLeod argues that inhibition does not take place, but instead is the result of confusion between similar word-pairs like food-tomato and red-strawberry that can lead to errors. This is different from tomato's attributes being inhibited. [29] "In most cases where inhibitory mechanisms have been offered to explain cognitive performance", explains MacLeod, "non-inhibitory mechanisms can accomplish the same goal" (p. 203). [29]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forgetting</span> Loss or modification of information encoded in an individuals memory

Forgetting or disremembering is the apparent loss or modification of information already encoded and stored in an individual's short or long-term memory. It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled from memory storage. Problems with remembering, learning and retaining new information are a few of the most common complaints of older adults. Studies show that retention improves with increased rehearsal. This improvement occurs because rehearsal helps to transfer information into long-term memory.

Recall in memory refers to the mental process of retrieval of information from the past. Along with encoding and storage, it is one of the three core processes of memory. There are three main types of recall: free recall, cued recall and serial recall. Psychologists test these forms of recall as a way to study the memory processes of humans and animals. Two main theories of the process of recall are the two-stage theory and the theory of encoding specificity.

Repressed memory is a controversial, and largely scientifically discredited, psychiatric phenomenon which involves an inability to recall autobiographical information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature. The concept originated in psychoanalytic theory where repression is understood as a defense mechanism that excludes painful experiences and unacceptable impulses from consciousness. Repressed memory is presently considered largely unsupported by research. Sigmund Freud initially claimed the memories of historical childhood trauma could be repressed, while unconsciously influencing present behavior and emotional responding; he later revised this belief.

The interference theory is a theory regarding human memory. Interference occurs in learning. The notion is that memories encoded in long-term memory (LTM) are forgotten and cannot be retrieved into short-term memory (STM) because either memory could interfere with the other. There is an immense number of encoded memories within the storage of LTM. The challenge for memory retrieval is recalling the specific memory and working in the temporary workspace provided in STM. Retaining information regarding the relevant time of encoding memories into LTM influences interference strength. There are two types of interference effects: proactive and retroactive interference.

The Decay theory is a theory that proposes that memory fades due to the mere passage of time. Information is therefore less available for later retrieval as time passes and memory, as well as memory strength, wears away. When an individual learns something new, a neurochemical "memory trace" is created. However, over time this trace slowly disintegrates. Actively rehearsing information is believed to be a major factor counteracting this temporal decline. It is widely believed that neurons die off gradually as we age, yet some older memories can be stronger than most recent memories. Thus, decay theory mostly affects the short-term memory system, meaning that older memories are often more resistant to shocks or physical attacks on the brain. It is also thought that the passage of time alone cannot cause forgetting, and that decay theory must also take into account some processes that occur as more time passes.

The spacing effect demonstrates that learning is more effective when study sessions are spaced out. This effect shows that more information is encoded into long-term memory by spaced study sessions, also known as spaced repetition or spaced presentation, than by massed presentation ("cramming").

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Testing effect</span> Memory effect in educational psychology

The testing effect suggests long-term memory is increased when part of the learning period is devoted to retrieving information from memory. It is different from the more general practice effect, defined in the APA Dictionary of Psychology as "any change or improvement that results from practice or repetition of task items or activities."

Collective memory refers to the shared pool of memories, knowledge and information of a social group that is significantly associated with the group's identity. The English phrase "collective memory" and the equivalent French phrase "la mémoire collective" appeared in the second half of the nineteenth century. The philosopher and sociologist Maurice Halbwachs analyzed and advanced the concept of the collective memory in the book Les cadres sociaux de la mémoire (1925).

Susan A. Clancy is a cognitive psychologist and associate professor in Consumer behaviour at INCAE as well as a post-doctoral fellow at Harvard University. She is best known for her controversial work on repressed and recovered memories in her books Abducted and The Trauma Myth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Robert A. Bjork</span> American cognitive psychologist (born 1939)

Robert Allen Bjork is Distinguished Professor of Psychology at the University of California, Los Angeles. His research focuses on human learning and memory and on the implications of the science of learning for instruction and training. He is the creator of the directed forgetting paradigm. He was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 2022.

Thought suppression is a psychoanalytical defense mechanism. It is a type of motivated forgetting in which an individual consciously attempts to stop thinking about a particular thought. It is often associated with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). OCD is when a person will repeatedly attempt to prevent or "neutralize" intrusive distressing thoughts centered on one or more obsessions. It is also thought to be a cause of memory inhibition, as shown by research using the think/no think paradigm. Thought suppression is relevant to both mental and behavioral levels, possibly leading to ironic effects that are contrary to intention. Ironic process theory is one cognitive model that can explain the paradoxical effect.

In psychology, context-dependent memory is the improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same. In a simpler manner, "when events are represented in memory, contextual information is stored along with memory targets; the context can therefore cue memories containing that contextual information". One particularly common example of context-dependence at work occurs when an individual has lost an item in an unknown location. Typically, people try to systematically "retrace their steps" to determine all of the possible places where the item might be located. Based on the role that context plays in determining recall, it is not at all surprising that individuals often quite easily discover the lost item upon returning to the correct context. This concept is heavily related to the encoding specificity principle.

Motivated forgetting is a theorized psychological behavior in which people may forget unwanted memories, either consciously or unconsciously. It is an example of a defence mechanism, since these are unconscious or conscious coping techniques used to reduce anxiety arising from unacceptable or potentially harmful impulses thus it can be a defence mechanism in some ways. Defence mechanisms are not to be confused with conscious coping strategies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Childhood memory</span> Early life experiences often memorable for life

Childhood memory refers to memories formed during childhood. Among its other roles, memory functions to guide present behaviour and to predict future outcomes. Memory in childhood is qualitatively and quantitatively different from the memories formed and retrieved in late adolescence and the adult years. Childhood memory research is relatively recent in relation to the study of other types of cognitive processes underpinning behaviour. Understanding the mechanisms by which memories in childhood are encoded and later retrieved has important implications in many areas. Research into childhood memory includes topics such as childhood memory formation and retrieval mechanisms in relation to those in adults, controversies surrounding infantile amnesia and the fact that adults have relatively poor memories of early childhood, the ways in which school environment and family environment influence memory, and the ways in which memory can be improved in childhood to improve overall cognition, performance in school, and well-being, both in childhood and in adulthood.

The Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) paradigm is a procedure in cognitive psychology used to study false memory in humans. The procedure was pioneered by James Deese in 1959, but it was not until Henry L. Roediger III and Kathleen McDermott extended the line of research in 1995 that the paradigm became popular. The procedure typically involves the oral presentation of a list of related words and then requires the subject to remember as many words from the list as possible. Typical results show that subjects recall a related but absent word, known as a 'lure', with the same frequency as other presented words. When asked about their experience after the test, about half of all participants report that they are sure that they remember hearing the lure, indicating a false memory – a memory for an event that never occurred.

Childhood amnesia, also called infantile amnesia, is the inability of most adults to retrieve episodic memories before the age of three to four years. It may also refer to the scarcity or fragmentation of memories recollected from early childhood, particularly occurring between the ages of 3 and 6. On average, this fragmented period wanes off at around 4.7 years. Around 5–6 years of age in particular is thought to be when autobiographical memory seems to stabilize and be on par with adults. The development of a cognitive self is also thought by some to have an effect on encoding and storing early memories.

Eyewitness memory is a person's episodic memory for a crime or other witnessed dramatic event. Eyewitness testimony is often relied upon in the judicial system. It can also refer to an individual's memory for a face, where they are required to remember the face of their perpetrator, for example. However, the accuracy of eyewitness memories is sometimes questioned because there are many factors that can act during encoding and retrieval of the witnessed event which may adversely affect the creation and maintenance of the memory for the event. Experts have found evidence to suggest that eyewitness memory is fallible.

Retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF) is a memory phenomenon where remembering causes forgetting of other information in memory. The phenomenon was first demonstrated in 1994, although the concept of RIF has been previously discussed in the context of retrieval inhibition.

Spontaneous recovery is a phenomenon of learning and memory that was first named and described by Ivan Pavlov in his studies of classical (Pavlovian) conditioning. In that context, it refers to the re-emergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a delay. Such a recovery of "lost" behaviors can be observed within a variety of domains, and the recovery of lost human memories is often of particular interest.

Suparna Rajaram, SUNY Distinguished Professor of Psychology at Stony Brook University, is an Indian-born cognitive psychologist and expert on memory and amnesia. Rajaram served as Chair of the Governing Board of the Psychonomic Society (2008) and as president of the Association for Psychological Science (2017–2018). Along with Judith Kroll and Randi Martin, Rajaram co-founded the organization Women in Cognitive Science in 2001, with the aim of improving the visibility of contributions of women to cognitive science. In 2019, she was an inaugural recipient of Psychonomic Society's Clifford T. Morgan Distinguished Leadership Award for significant contributions and sustained leadership in the discipline of cognitive psychology.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 MacLeod, C. M. (2007). "Chapter 1: The Concept of Inhibition in Cognition". In Gorfein, D.S.; MacLeod, C. M. (eds.). Inhibition in Cognition. American Psychological Association. pp. 3–23. ISBN   978-1-59147-930-7.
  2. ↑ Neumann, E; Cherau, JF; Hood, KL; Steinnagel, SL (1993). "Does inhibition spread in a manner analogous to spreading activation?". Memory. 1 (2): 81–105. doi:10.1080/09658219308258226. PMID   7584264.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Wade, C., Tavris, C. (2011). Psychology (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN   978-0-205-71146-8
  4. ↑ Mathews, P. M. (2011). "Chapter 5: The Mnemonic Brain: Neuroimaging, Neuropharmacology, and Disorders of Memory". In Nalbantian, S.; Mathews, P. M.; McClelland, J. L. (eds.). The Memory Processes: Neuroscientific and Humanistic Perspectives. MIT Press. pp. 99–127. ISBN   978-0-262-01457-1.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Dempster, F. N. (1995). "Chapter 1: An Historical Perspective". In Dempster, F.N.; Brainerd, C. J. (eds.). Interference and Inhibition in Cognition. Academic Press, Inc. pp. 3–26. ISBN   978-0-12-208930-5.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Dagenbach, D.; Carr, T.H., eds. (1994). Inhibitory Processes in Attention, Memory, and Language. Academic Press, Inc. ISBN   978-0-12-200410-0.
  7. ↑ Carr, T. H. (2007). "Chapter 15: Is It Time to Inhibit Inhibition? Lessons From a Decade of Inhibitory Processes in Cognition". In Gorfein, D.S.; MacLeod, C. M. (eds.). Inhibition in Cognition. American Psychological Association. pp. 3–23. ISBN   978-1-59147-930-7.
  8. 1 2 Bower, G. H. (2000). "Chapter 1: A Brief History of Memory Research". In Tulving, E.; Craik, F.I.M. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Memory. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-518200-2.
  9. ↑ Davidson, T; Kanoski, S; Walls, E; Jarrard, L,["Memory Inhibition and Energy Regulation"]"ElSevier"2005
  10. ↑ Slamecka NJ (1968). "An examination of trace storage in free recall". J Exp Psychol. 76 (4): 504–13. doi:10.1037/h0025695. PMID   5650563.
  11. ↑ Marsh, E. J.; Dolan, P. O.; Balota, D. A.; Roediger, H. L. (2004). "Part-set cuing effects in younger and older adults". Psychology and Aging. 19 (1): 134–144. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.19.1.134. PMID   15065937.
  12. ↑ Nairne, J. S. (2007). Roddy Roediger's Memory. In J. S. Nairne (Ed.), The foundations of remembering: Essays in honor of Henry L. Roediger, III. New York: Psychology Press http://www1.psych.purdue.edu/~nairne/pdfs/44.pdf Archived 2012-11-15 at the Wayback Machine
  13. ↑ Stone JV, Hunkin NM, Hornby A (2001). "Predicting spontaneous recovery of memory". Nature. 414 (6860): 167–8. doi:10.1038/35102676. PMID   11700545. S2CID   1896737.
  14. ↑ Zacks, R.T.; Hasher, L.; Li, K.Z.H. (2008). The Handbook of Aging and Cognition, 3rd edn. East Sussex: Psychology Press. ISBN   978-0-8058-5990-4. (pages 293-258)
  15. 1 2 Gorgein, D. S.; Brown, V. R.. (2007). "Chapter 6: Saying No to Inhibition: The Encoding and Use of Words". In Gorfein, D.S.; MacLeod, C. M. (eds.). Inhibition in Cognition. American Psychological Association. pp. 3–23. ISBN   978-1-59147-930-7.
  16. ↑ Anderson MC, Spellman BA (1995). "On the Status of Inhibitory Mechanism in Cognition: Memory Retrieval as a Model Case". Psychological Review. 102 (1): 68–100. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.102.1.68. PMID   7878163.
  17. ↑ Anderson MC, Green C (2001). "Suppressing unwanted memories by executive control". Nature. 410 (6826): 366–9. Bibcode:2001Natur.410..366A. doi:10.1038/35066572. PMID   11268212. S2CID   4403569.
  18. 1 2 3 Bulevich, J. B.; Roediger, H.; Balota, D. A.; Butler, A. C. (2006). "Failures to find suppression of episodic memories in the think/no-think paradigm". Memory & Cognition. 34 (8): 1569–1577. doi: 10.3758/BF03195920 . PMID   17489284.
  19. ↑ Widom, Cathy Spatz; Morris, Suzanne (March 1997). "Accuracy of Adult Recollections of Childhood Victimization: Part 2. Childhood Sexual Abuse". Psychological Assessment. 9 (1). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association: 34–46. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.9.1.34. ISSN   1040-3590. EJ545434. Retrieved 2007-12-18.
  20. ↑ Sheflin, Alan W; Brown, Daniel (1996). "Repressed Memory or Dissociative Amnesia: What the Science Says". Journal of Psychiatry & Law. 24 (Summer): 143–88. doi:10.1177/009318539602400203. ISSN   0093-1853. S2CID   149648250.
  21. ↑ Widom, Cathy Spatz; Shepard, Robin L. (December 1996). "Accuracy of adult recollections of childhood victimization : Part 1. Childhood physical abuse". Psychological Assessment. 8 (4). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association: 412–21. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.8.4.412. ISSN   1040-3590. EJ542113. Retrieved 2007-12-18.
  22. 1 2 van der Kolk, M.D., Bessel (March 1, 1997). "Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Memory". Psychiatric Times. 14 (3).
  23. ↑ Sharon C. Wilsnack; Stephen A. Wonderlich; Arlinda F. Kristjanson; Nancy Vogeltanz-Holm; Richard W. Wilsnack (2002). "Self-reports of forgetting and remembering childhood sexual abuse in a nationally representative sample of US women". Child Abuse & Neglect. 26 (2, February 2002, Pages 139–147): 139–47. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(01)00313-1. PMID   11933986.
  24. ↑ McNally, R. J.; Clancy, S. A.; Schacter, D. L. (2001). "Directed forgetting of trauma cues in adults reporting repressed or recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 110 (1): 151–156. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.110.1.151. PMID   11261390. S2CID   11045962.
  25. 1 2 McNally, R. J.; Metzger, L. J.; Lasko, N. B.; Clancy, S. A.; Pitman, R. K. (1998). "Directed forgetting of trauma cues in adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse with and without posttraumatic stress disorder". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 107 (4): 596–601. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.107.4.596. PMID   9830247.
  26. ↑ Williams LM (December 1994). "Recall of childhood trauma: a prospective study of women's memories of child sexual abuse". J Consult Clin Psychol. 62 (6): 1167–76. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.62.6.1167. PMID   7860814.
  27. ↑ Hopper, Jim. "Recovered Memories of Sexual Abuse Scientific Research & Scholarly Resources". Archived from the original on 2016-06-18. Retrieved 2007-12-15.
  28. ↑ "Recovered Memory Project". Taubman Center for Public Policy & American Institutions at Brown University. Retrieved 2007-12-15.
  29. 1 2 3 MacLeod, C. M., Dodd, M. D., Sheard, E. D., Wilson, D. E., & Bibi, U. (2003). "In opposition to inhibition". In B. H. Ross (Ed.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory, vol. 43, 163–214. New York, NY US: Elsevier Science.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.