Flashback (psychology)

Last updated

A flashback, or involuntary recurrent memory, is a psychological phenomenon in which an individual has a sudden, usually powerful, re-experiencing of a past experience or elements of a past experience. These experiences can be frightful, happy, sad, exciting, or any number of other emotions. [1] The term is used particularly when the memory is recalled involuntarily, especially when it is so intense that the person "relives" the experience, and is unable to fully recognize it as memory of a past experience and not something that is happening in "real time". [2]

Contents

History

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) Ebbinghaus.jpg
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909)

Flashbacks are the "personal experiences that pop into your awareness, without any conscious, premeditated attempt to search and retrieve this memory". [3] These experiences occasionally have little to no relation to the situation at hand. For those suffering post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), flashbacks can significantly disrupt everyday life. [3]

Memory is divided into voluntary (conscious) and involuntary (unconscious) processes that function independently of each other. [1] Theories and research on memory date back to Hermann Ebbinghaus, who began studying nonsense syllables. [1] Ebbinghaus classified three distinct classes of memory: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. [4]

Miller (1962–1974) declared that studying such fragile things as involuntary memories should not be done. [1] This appears to have been followed, since very little research has been done on flashbacks in the cognitive psychology discipline. [1] However, flashbacks have been studied within a clinical discipline, and they have been identified as symptoms for many disorders, including PTSD. [1]

Theory

Due to the elusive nature of involuntary recurrent memories, very little is known about the subjective experience of flashbacks. However, theorists agree that this phenomenon is in part due to the manner in which memories of specific events are initially encoded (or entered) into memory, the way in which the memory is organized, and also the way in which the individual later recalls the event. [5] Overall, theories that attempt to explain the flashback phenomenon can be categorized into one of two viewpoints. The "special mechanism" view is clinically oriented in that it holds that involuntary memories are due to traumatic events, and the memories for these events can be attributed to a special memory mechanism. On the other hand, the "basic mechanism" view is more experimentally oriented in that it is based on memory research. [6] This view holds that traumatic memories are bound by the same parameters as all other every-day memories. Both viewpoints agree that involuntary recurrent memories result from rare events that would not normally occur.

These rare events elicit strong emotional reactions from the individual, since they violate normal expectations. [7] According to the special mechanism view, the event would lead to fragmented voluntary encoding into memory, thus making the conscious subsequent retrieval of the memory much more difficult. On the other hand, involuntary recurrent memories are likely to become more available, and these are more likely to be triggered by external cues. In contrast to this, the basic mechanism view holds that the traumatic event would lead to enhanced and cohesive encoding of the event in memory, and this would make both voluntary and involuntary memories more available for subsequent recall. [8]

What is currently an issue of controversy is the nature of the defining criteria that make up an involuntary memory. Up until recently, researchers believed that involuntary memories were a result of traumatic incidents that the individual experienced at a specific time and place, while losing all the temporal and spatial features of the event during an involuntary recollection episode. In other words, people who suffer from flashbacks lose all sense of time and place, and they feel as if they are re-experiencing the event instead of just recalling a memory. [5] This is consistent with the special mechanism viewpoint in that the involuntary memory is based on a different memory mechanism compared to the voluntary counterpart. Furthermore, the initial emotions experienced at the time of encoding are also re-experienced during a flashback episode, which can be especially distressing when the memory is of a traumatic event. It has also been demonstrated that the nature of the flashbacks experienced by an individual are static in that they retain an identical form upon each intrusion. [9] This occurs even when the individual has learned new information that directly contradicts the information retained in the intrusive memory. [10]

Upon further investigation, it was found that involuntary memories are usually derived from either stimuli that indicated the onset of a traumatic event, or from stimuli that hold intense emotional significance to the individual simply because they were closely associated with the trauma during the time of the event. [11] These stimuli then become warning signals that, if encountered again, serve to trigger a flashback. This has been termed the warning signal hypothesis. For example, a person may experience a flashback while seeing sun spots on their lawn. This happens because they associate the spots with the headlights of the vehicle that they saw before being involved in a car accident. According to Ehlers and Clark, traumatic memories are more apt to induce flashbacks because of faulty encoding that cause the individual to fail in taking contextual information into account, as well as time and place information that would usually be associated with everyday memories. [10] These individuals become sensitized to stimuli that they associate with the traumatic event, which then serve as triggers for a flashback, even if the context surrounding the stimulus may be unrelated. These triggers may elicit an adaptive response during the time of the traumatic experience, but they soon become maladaptive if the person continues to respond in the same way to situations in which no danger may be present. [5]

The special mechanism viewpoint further adds to this by suggesting that these triggers activate the fragmented memory of the traumatic event, while the protective cognitive mechanisms function to inhibit the recall of the original memory. [7] Dual representation theory enhances this idea by suggesting two separate mechanisms that account for voluntary and involuntary memories. The first of which is called the verbally accessible memory system and the latter of which is referred as the situationally accessible memory system. [12]

In contrast to this, theories belonging to the basic mechanism viewpoint hold that there are no separate mechanisms that account for voluntary and involuntary memories. The recall of memories for stressful events do not differ under involuntary and voluntary recall. Instead, it is the retrieval mechanism that is different for each type of recall. In involuntary recall, the external trigger creates an uncontrolled spreading of activation in memory, whereas in voluntary recall, this activation is strictly controlled and is goal-oriented. [7]

In addition, the basic mechanism’s involuntary recall for negative events, are also associated with memories of positive events. Studies have shown that out of the participants who suffer from flashbacks, about 5 percent of them experience positive non-traumatic flashbacks. They experience the same intensity level and has the same retrieval mechanism as the people who experienced negative and/or traumatic flashbacks, which includes the vividness and the emotion related to the involuntary memory. The only difference is whether the emotion evoked is positive or negative. [13]

Cognition

Sensory memory

Memory has typically been divided into sensory, short-term, and long-term processes. [14] The items that are seen, or other sensory details related to an intense intrusive memory, may cause flashbacks. [15] These sensory experiences take place just before the flashback event. They act as a conditioning stimulus for the event to appear as an involuntary memory. The presence of the primer increases the likelihood of the appearance of a flashback. Just as the sensory memory can result in this, it can also help erase the connections between the memory and the primer. Counter conditioning and rewriting the memory of the events that are related to the sensory cue may help dissociate the memory from the primer. [16]

Short-term memory/working memory

There have been many suspicions that disruptive memories may cause deficiencies in short term memories. For people who suffer from flashbacks, the hippocampus that is involved with the working memory has been damaged, supporting the theory that the working memory could have also been affected. Many studies were conducted to test this theory and all results concluded that intrusive memory does not affect the short-term memory or the working memory. [17]

Long-term memory

Out of the three types of memory processes, long-term memory contains the greatest amount of memory storage and is involved in most of the cognitive processes. According to Rasmuseen and Berntsen, "long-term memory processes may form the core of spontaneous thought" (2009). [18] Thus, the memory process most related to flashbacks is long term memory. Additionally, other 2009 studies by Rasmuseen and Berntsen have shown that long term memory is also susceptible to extraneous factors such as recency effect, arousal, and rehearsal as it pertains to accessibility. [18] Compared to voluntary memories, involuntary memories show shorter retrieval times and little cognitive effort. Finally, involuntary memories arise due to automatic processing, which does not rely on higher-order cognitive monitoring, or executive control processing. Normally, voluntary memory would be associated with contextual information, allowing correspondence between time and place to happen. This is not true for flashbacks. According to Brewin, Lanius et, al, flashbacks, are disconnected from contextual information, and as a result are disconnected from time and place (2009). [19]

Episodic memory

Episodic memory is a type of long-term memory where the involuntary memories are made up of intense autobiographical memories. As a version of declarative memory, this follows the same idea that the more personal the memory is, the more likely it will be remembered. Disruptive memories are almost always associated with a familiar stimulus that quickly becomes stronger through the process of consolidation and reconsolidation. The major difference is that intrusive thoughts are harder to forget. [20] Most mental narratives tends to have varying levels of some type of emotions involved with the memory. For flashbacks, most of the emotions associated with it are negative, though it could be positive as well. These emotions are intense and makes the memory more vivid. Decreasing the intensity of the emotion associated with an intrusive memory may reduce the memory to a calmer episodic memory. [21]

Neuroscience

Anatomy

Mid sagittal cut of human brain Gray727.png
Mid sagittal cut of human brain
The hippocampus is highlighted in red. Hippocampus.gif
The hippocampus is highlighted in red.

Several brain regions have been implicated in the neurological basis of flashbacks. The medial temporal lobes, the precuneus, the posterior cingulate gyrus and the prefrontal cortex are the most typically referenced with regards to involuntary memories. [18]

The medial temporal lobes are commonly associated with memory. More specifically, the lobes have been linked to episodic/declarative memory, which means the damage to these areas of the brain would result in disruptions to declarative memory system. [22] The hippocampus, located within the medial temporal regions, has also been highly related to memory processes. There are numerous functions in the hippocampus that includes aspects of memory consolidation. [14] Brain imaging studies have shown flashbacks activating areas associated with memory retrieval. [18] The precuneus, located in the superior parietal lobe, and the posterior cingulate gyrus, have also been implicated in memory retrieval. In addition, studies have shown activity in areas of the prefrontal cortex to be involved in memory retrieval. [18]

Thus, the medial temporal lobe, precuneus, superior parietal lobe and posterior cingulate gyrus have all been implicated in flashbacks in accordance to their roles on memory retrieval. [23]

Clinical investigations

To date, the specific causes of flashbacks have not yet been confirmed. Several studies have proposed various potential factors. Psychiatrists suggest that temporal lobe seizures may also have some relation. [14]

Conversely, several ideas have been discounted in terms of being a possible cause to flashbacks. Tym et al., 2009, suggest this list includes medication or other substances, Charles Bonnet syndrome, delayed palinopsia, hallucinations, dissociative phenomena, and depersonalization syndrome. [24]

A study of the persistence of traumatic memories in World War II prisoners of war, [25] investigates via the administration of surveys, the extent and severity of flashbacks that occur in prisoners of war. This study concluded that the persistence of severely traumatic autobiographical memories can last up to 65 years. Until recently, the study of flashbacks has been limited to participants who already experience flashbacks, such as those suffering from PTSD, restricting researchers to observational/exploratory rather than experimental studies. [25]

There have also been treatments based on theories about the inner workings of the involuntary memory. The procedure involves changing the content of the intrusive memories and restructuring it so the negative connotations associated with it is erased. The patients are encouraged to live their lives and not focus on their disruptive memories, and are taught to recognize any stimulus that may start the flashbacks. The events related to the flashbacks still mostly exist in their mind, but the meaning and the way the person perceives it is now different. According to Ehlers, this method has a high success rate with patients who have suffered from trauma. [16]

Neuroimaging investigations

Neuroimaging techniques have been applied to the investigation of flashbacks. Using these techniques, researchers attempt to discover the structural and functional differences in the anatomy of the brain in individuals who suffer from flashbacks compared to those who do not. Neuroimaging involves a cluster of techniques, including computerized tomography, positron emission tomography, magnetic resonance imaging (including functional), as well as magnetoencephalography. Neuroimaging studies investigating flashbacks are based on current psychological theories that are used as the foundation for the research. One of theories that is consistently investigated is the difference between explicit and implicit memory. This distinction dictates the manner in which memories are later recalled, namely either consciously (voluntarily) or unconsciously (involuntarily). [26]

These methods have largely relied on subtractive reasoning, in which the participant first voluntarily recalls a memory before recalling the memory again through involuntary means. Involuntary memories (or flashbacks) are elicited in the participant by reading an emotionally charged script to them that is designed to trigger a flashback in individuals who suffer from PTSD. The investigators record the regions of the brain that are active during each of these conditions, and then subtract the activity. Whatever is left is assumed to underpin the neurological differences between the conditions. [26]

Imaging studies looking at patients with PTSD as they undergo flashback experiences have identified elevated activation in regions of the dorsal stream including the mid-occipital lobe, primary motor cortex, and supplementary motor area. [27] The dorsal stream is involved in sensory processing, and therefore these activations might underlie the vivid visual experiences associated with flashbacks. The study also found reduced activation in regions such as the inferior temporal cortex and parahippocampus which are involved in processing allocentric relations. [27] These deactivations might contribute to feelings of dissociation from reality during flashback experiences.

Relations to mental illness and drug use

Flashbacks are often associated with mental illness as they are a symptom and a feature in diagnostic criteria for PTSD, acute stress disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). [2] Flashbacks have also been observed in people suffering from bipolar disorder, depression, homesickness, near-death experiences, epileptic seizures, and substance abuse. [26]

Some researchers have suggested that the use of some drugs can cause a person to experience flashbacks. [28] [29] Users of LSD sometimes report "acid flashbacks." The effect of certain drugs on flashbacks may involve a variety of factors. For example, a study on the use of the Nabilone for the treatment of nightmares in PTSD patients found that, in some cases, the use of the synthetic cannabinoid reduced daytime flashbacks. [30] However another study found subjects previously exposed to cannabinoids (non-synthetic), could experience cannabinoid "flashbacks" when THC stored in fat cells re-enters the bloodstream through lipolysis. [31]

Culture

The psychological phenomenon has frequently been portrayed in film and television. Some of the most accurate media portrayals of flashbacks have been those related to wartime, and the association of flashbacks to PTSD caused by the traumas and stresses of war. [1] One of the earliest screen portrayals of this is in the 1945 film Mildred Pierce . [32]

See also

Related Research Articles

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental and behavioral disorder that develops from experiencing a traumatic event, such as sexual assault, warfare, traffic collisions, child abuse, domestic violence, or other threats on a person's life or well-being. Symptoms may include disturbing thoughts, feelings, or dreams related to the events, mental or physical distress to trauma-related cues, attempts to avoid trauma-related cues, alterations in the way a person thinks and feels, and an increase in the fight-or-flight response. These symptoms last for more than a month after the event. Young children are less likely to show distress, but instead may express their memories through play. A person with PTSD is at a higher risk of suicide and intentional self-harm.

Psychological trauma is an emotional response caused by severe distressing events that are outside the normal range of human experiences, with extreme examples being violence, rape, or a terrorist attack. The event must be understood by the affected person as directly threatening the affected person or their loved ones with death, severe bodily injury, or sexual violence; indirect exposure, such as from watching television news, may be extremely distressing and can produce an involuntary and possibly overwhelming physiological stress response, but does not produce trauma per se.

Acute stress reaction is a psychological response to a terrifying, traumatic or surprising experience. It may bring about delayed stress reactions if not correctly addressed. Acute stress may present in reactions which include but are not limited to: intrusive or dissociative symptoms, and reactivity symptoms such as avoidance or arousal. Reactions may be exhibited for days or weeks after the traumatic event.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Involuntary memory</span> Memory triggered by an environmental cue

Involuntary memory, also known as involuntary explicit memory, involuntary conscious memory, involuntary aware memory, madeleine moment, mind pops and most commonly, involuntary autobiographical memory, is a sub-component of memory that occurs when cues encountered in everyday life evoke recollections of the past without conscious effort. Voluntary memory, its opposite, is characterized by a deliberate effort to recall the past.

Dominique de Quervain is a Swiss neuroscientist. He is professor of neuroscience and director of the Division of Cognitive Neuroscience at the University of Basel, Switzerland. He is known for his pioneering research into the use of glucocorticoids (cortisol) in the treatment of PTSD and phobias. He is understood to have found a link between cortisol and forgetting, specifically that cortisol can inhibit memory retrieval. Furthermore, he is known for his contributions to the field of genetics of human memory.

Prolonged exposure therapy (PE) is a form of behavior therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy designed to treat post-traumatic stress disorder. It is characterized by two main treatment procedures – imaginal and in vivo exposures. Imaginal exposure is repeated 'on-purpose' retelling of the trauma memory. In vivo exposure is gradually confronting situations, places, and things that are reminders of the trauma or feel dangerous. Additional procedures include processing of the trauma memory and breathing retraining.

A trauma trigger is a psychological stimulus that prompts involuntary recall of a previous traumatic experience. The stimulus itself need not be frightening or traumatic and may be only indirectly or superficially reminiscent of an earlier traumatic incident, such as a scent or a piece of clothing. Triggers can be subtle, individual, and difficult for others to predict. A trauma trigger may also be called a trauma stimulus, a trauma stressor or a trauma reminder.

Memory and trauma is the deleterious effects that physical or psychological trauma has on memory.

Post-traumatic amnesia (PTA) is a state of confusion that occurs immediately following a traumatic brain injury (TBI) in which the injured person is disoriented and unable to remember events that occur after the injury. The person may be unable to state their name, where they are, and what time it is. When continuous memory returns, PTA is considered to have resolved. While PTA lasts, new events cannot be stored in the memory. About a third of patients with mild head injury are reported to have "islands of memory", in which the patient can recall only some events. During PTA, the patient's consciousness is "clouded". Because PTA involves confusion in addition to the memory loss typical of amnesia, the term "post-traumatic confusional state" has been proposed as an alternative.

Derealization is an alteration in the perception of the external world, causing those with the condition to perceive it as unreal, distant, distorted or falsified. Other symptoms include feeling as if one's environment is lacking in spontaneity, emotional coloring, and depth. It is a dissociative symptom that may appear in moments of severe stress.

Autobiographical memory (AM) is a memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual's life, based on a combination of episodic and semantic memory. It is thus a type of explicit memory.

Guided imagery is a mind-body intervention by which a trained practitioner or teacher helps a participant or patient to evoke and generate mental images that simulate or recreate the sensory perception of sights, sounds, tastes, smells, movements, and images associated with touch, such as texture, temperature, and pressure, as well as imaginative or mental content that the participant or patient experiences as defying conventional sensory categories, and that may precipitate strong emotions or feelings in the absence of the stimuli to which correlating sensory receptors are receptive.

The management of traumatic memories is important when treating mental health disorders such as post traumatic stress disorder. Traumatic memories can cause life problems even to individuals who do not meet the diagnostic criteria for a mental health disorder. They result from traumatic experiences, including natural disasters such as earthquakes and tsunamis; violent events such as kidnapping, terrorist attacks, war, domestic abuse and rape. Traumatic memories are naturally stressful in nature and emotionally overwhelm people's existing coping mechanisms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of stress on memory</span> Overview of the effects of stress on memory

The effects of stress on memory include interference with a person's capacity to encode memory and the ability to retrieve information. Stimuli, like stress, improved memory when it was related to learning the subject. During times of stress, the body reacts by secreting stress hormones into the bloodstream. Stress can cause acute and chronic changes in certain brain areas which can cause long-term damage. Over-secretion of stress hormones most frequently impairs long-term delayed recall memory, but can enhance short-term, immediate recall memory. This enhancement is particularly relative in emotional memory. In particular, the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and the amygdala are affected. One class of stress hormone responsible for negatively affecting long-term, delayed recall memory is the glucocorticoids (GCs), the most notable of which is cortisol. Glucocorticoids facilitate and impair the actions of stress in the brain memory process. Cortisol is a known biomarker for stress. Under normal circumstances, the hippocampus regulates the production of cortisol through negative feedback because it has many receptors that are sensitive to these stress hormones. However, an excess of cortisol can impair the ability of the hippocampus to both encode and recall memories. These stress hormones are also hindering the hippocampus from receiving enough energy by diverting glucose levels to surrounding muscles.

PTSD or post-traumatic stress disorder, is a psychiatric disorder characterised by intrusive thoughts and memories, dreams or flashbacks of the event; avoidance of people, places and activities that remind the individual of the event; ongoing negative beliefs about oneself or the world, mood changes and persistent feelings of anger, guilt or fear; alterations in arousal such as increased irritability, angry outbursts, being hypervigilant, or having difficulty with concentration and sleep.

Memory erasure is the selective artificial removal of memories or associations from the mind.

Mental disorders can be a consequence of miscarriage or early pregnancy loss. Even though women can develop long-term psychiatric symptoms after a miscarriage, acknowledging the potential of mental illness is not usually considered. A mental illness can develop in women who have experienced one or more miscarriages after the event or even years later. Some data suggest that men and women can be affected up to 15 years after the loss. Though recognized as a public health problem, studies investigating the mental health status of women following miscarriage are still lacking. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can develop in women who have experienced a miscarriage. Risks for developing PTSD after miscarriage include emotional pain, expressions of emotion, and low levels of social support. Even if relatively low levels of stress occur after the miscarriage, symptoms of PTSD including flashbacks, intrusive thoughts, dissociation and hyperarousal can later develop. Clinical depression also is associated with miscarriage. Past responses by clinicians have been to prescribe sedatives.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emily A. Holmes</span> Clinical psychologist and neuroscientist

Emily A. Holmes is a clinical psychologist and neuroscientist known for her research on mental imagery in relation to psychological treatments for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), bipolar disorder, and depression. Holmes is Professor of Clinical Neuroscience at Karolinska Institute in Sweden. She also holds an appointment as Honorary Professor of Clinical Psychology at the University of Oxford.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dual representation theory</span>

Dual representation theory (DRT) is a psychological theory of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) developed by Chris Brewin, Tim Dalgleish, and Stephen Joseph in 1996. This theory proposes that certain symptoms of PTSD - such as nightmares, flashbacks, and emotional disturbance - may be attributed to memory processes that occur after exposure to a traumatic event. DRT proposes the existence of two separate memory systems that run in parallel during memory formation: the verbally accessible memory system (VAM) and situationally accessible memory system (SAM). The VAM system contains information that was consciously processed and thus can be voluntarily recalled or described. In contrast, the SAM system contains unconsciously processed sensory information that cannot be voluntarily recalled. This theory suggests that the VAM system is impaired during a traumatic event because conscious attention is narrowly drawn to threat-related information. Therefore, memory of the trauma is heavily focused on fear, which affects information processing. This gives rise to PTSD symptoms such as trauma-related cognitions, appraisals, and emotions. The SAM system captures vivid sensory information during the traumatic event, which is automatically recalled through exposure to trauma-related triggers. This system is thought to be responsible for the presence of flashbacks and nightmares in PTSD symptomatology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Post-traumatic stress disorder after World War II</span>

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) results after experiencing or witnessing a terrifying event which later leads to mental health problems. This disorder has always existed but has only been recognized as a psychological disorder within the past forty years. Before receiving its official diagnosis in 1980, when it was published in the third edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-lll), Post-traumatic stress disorder was more commonly known as soldier's heart, irritable heart, or shell shock. Shell shock and war neuroses were coined during World War I when symptoms began to be more commonly recognized among many of the soldiers that had experienced similar traumas. By World War II, these symptoms were identified as combat stress reaction or battle fatigue. In the first edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-I), post-traumatic stress disorder was called gross stress reaction which was explained as prolonged stress due to a traumatic event. Upon further study of this disorder in World War II veterans, psychologists realized that their symptoms were long-lasting and went beyond an anxiety disorder. Thus, through the effects of World War II, post-traumatic stress disorder was eventually recognized as an official disorder in 1980.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Bernsten D.; Rubin D. (2002). "Emotionally Charged Autobiographical Memories Across the Life Span:The Recall of Happy, Sad, Traumatic, and Involuntary Memories". Psychology and Aging. 17 (4): 636–652. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.17.4.636. PMID   12507360.
  2. 1 2 3 Brewin, C.; Gregory, J.; Lipton, M. & Burgess, N. (2010). "Intrusive Images in Psychological Disorders: Characteristics, Neural Mechanisms, and Treatment Implications". Psychological Review. 117 (1): 210–232. doi:10.1037/a0018113. PMC   2834572 . PMID   20063969.
  3. 1 2 Ball C.; Little J. (2006). "A Comparison of Involuntary Autobiographical Memory Retrievals". Applied Cognitive Psychology. 20 (9): 1167–1179. doi:10.1002/acp.1264.
  4. 1 2 3 Baddeley, A.; Eysneck, M.; Anderson, M. (2009). Memory. New York: Psychology Press.
  5. 1 2 3 Ehlers A.; Hackmann A.; Michael T. (2004). "Intrusive Re-Experiencing in post-traumatic stress disorder: Phenomenology, theory and therapy". Memory. 12 (4): 403–415. doi:10.1080/09658210444000025. PMID   15487537. S2CID   20444900.
  6. ↑ Mole, C. Are there Special Mechanisms of Involuntary Memory?. Rev.Phil.Psych. 8, 557–571 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-016-0326-z
  7. 1 2 3 Rubin D, Boals A, Berntsen D (2008). "Memory in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Properties of Voluntary and Involuntary, Traumatic and Nontraumatic Autobiographical Memories in People With and Without Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 137 (4): 591–614. doi:10.1037/a0013165. PMC   2597428 . PMID   18999355.
  8. ↑ Hall, N. M.; Berntsen, D. (2008). "The effect of emotional stress on involuntary and voluntary conscious memories". Memory. 16 (1): 48–57. doi:10.1080/09658210701333271. PMID   17852728. S2CID   24475736.
  9. ↑ Van der Kolk B. A.; van der Hart O. (1991). "The intrusive past: the flexibility of memory and the engraving trauma". American Imago. 48 (4): 425–454.
  10. 1 2 Ehlers A.; Clark D. M. (2000). "A cognitive model of post-traumatic stress disorder". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 38 (4): 319–345. doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00123-0. PMID   10761279.
  11. ↑ Ehlers A.; Hackmann A.; Steil R.; Clohessy S.; Wenninger K.; Winter H. (2002). "The nature of intrusive memories after trauma: The warning signal hypothesis". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 40 (9): 1021–1028. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00077-8. PMID   12296496.
  12. ↑ Brewin C. R.; Dalgleish T.; Joseph S. (1996). "A dual representation theory of post-traumatic stress disorder". Psychological Review. 103 (4): 670–686. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.103.4.670. PMID   8888651.
  13. ↑ Berntsen, Dorthe. (2012). Involuntary autobiographical memories : an introduction to the unbidden past. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-1-107-40598-1. OCLC   784577389.
  14. 1 2 3 Pinel, J. (2009) Biopsyschology. Boston: Pearson.
  15. ↑ Chris, Brewin (2012). "Source memory errors associated with reports of posttraumatic flashbacks: A proof of concept study". Cognition. 124 (2): 234–238. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2012.05.002. PMC   3396838 . PMID   22658646 – via doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2012.05.002.
  16. 1 2 Ehlers, A. (2010). "Understanding and Treating Unwanted Trauma Memories in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder". Z Psychol. 218 (2): 141–145. doi:10.1027/0044-3409/a000021. PMC   3072671 . PMID   22095462.
  17. ↑ Swick, D., Cayton, J., Ashley, V., & Turken, A. U. (2017). Dissociation Between Working Memory Performance and Proactive Interference Control in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Neuropsychologia, 111-121. doi : 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.01.005
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 Rasmuseen A.; Berntsen D. (2009). "The Possible Functions of Involuntary Autobiographical Memories". Applied Cognitive Psychology. 23 (8): 1137–1152. doi:10.1002/acp.1615.
  19. ↑ Brenwin C.; Lanius R.; Novac A.; Schnyder U.; Galea S. (2009). "Reformulating PTSD for DSM-V: Life After Criterion A." (PDF). Journal of Traumatic Stress. 22 (5): 366–373. doi:10.1002/jts.20443. PMID   19743480. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-05-03. Retrieved 2020-06-04.
  20. ↑ Brewin, C.R. Memory and Forgetting. Curr Psychiatry Rep20, 87 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-018-0950-7
  21. ↑ Högberg G, Nardo D, Hällström T, Pagani M. (2011) Affective psychotherapy in post-traumatic reactions guided by affective neuroscience: memory reconsolidation and play. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 87–96. doi : 10.2147/prbm.s10380.
  22. ↑ Squire, L. R., Stark, C. E. L., & Clark, R. E. (2004). The Medial Temporal Lobe. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 27(1), 279–306. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144130
  23. ↑ Whalley, M. G., Kroes, M. C. W., Huntley, Z., Rugg, M. D., Davis, S. W., & Brewin, C. R. (2013). An fMRI investigation of posttraumatic flashbacks. Brain and Cognition, 81(1), 151–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2012.10.002
  24. ↑ Tym R.; Beaumont P.; Lioulios T. (2009). "Two Persisting Pathophysiological Visual Phenomena Following Psychological Trauma and Their Elimination With Rapid Eye Movements: A Possible Refinement of Construct of PTSD and Its Visual State Marker". Traumatology. 15 (3): 23. doi:10.1177/1534765609335521.
  25. 1 2 Rintamaki L. S.; Weaver F. M.; Elbaum P. L.; Klama E. M.; Miskevics S. A. (2009). "Persistence of traumatic memories in World War II prisoners of war". Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 57 (12): 2257–2262. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2009.02608.x. PMID   20121989. S2CID   39278957.
  26. 1 2 3 Mace, J. H. (2007). Involuntary Memory. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
  27. 1 2 Whalley, Matthew G.; et al. (2013). "An fMRI investigation of posttraumatic flashbacks". Brain and Cognition. 81 (1): 151–159. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2012.10.002. PMC   3549493 . PMID   23207576.
  28. ↑ Ribhi H, Cadet JL, Kahook MY, Saed D (2009). "Ocular Manifestations of Crystal Methamphetamine Use". Neurotoxicity Research. 15 (2): 187–191. doi:10.1007/s12640-009-9019-z. PMID   19384581. S2CID   19375623.
  29. ↑ Suzuki, J.; Halpern, J. H.; Passie, T. & Huertas, P. E. (2009). "Pharmacology and treatment of substance abuse: Evidence- and outcome-based perspectives" (Monograph).{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  30. ↑ Fraser G. A. (Spring 2009). "The use of a synthetic cannabinoid in the management of treatment-resistant nightmares in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)". CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics. 15 (1): 84–88. doi:10.1111/j.1755-5949.2008.00071.x. PMC   6494011 . PMID   19228182.
  31. ↑ Gunasekaran N, Long L, Dawson B, Hansen G, Richardson D, Li K, Arnold J, McGregor I (2009). "Reintoxication: the release of fat-stored D9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) into blood is enhanced by food deprivation or ACTH exposure". British Journal of Pharmacology. 158 (5): 1330–1337. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2009.00399.x. PMC   2782342 . PMID   19681888.
  32. ↑ Dirks, T. (2009). "Mildred Pierce (1945)".
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.