Memory rehearsal

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Memory rehearsal is a term for the role of repetition in the retention of memories. It involves repeating information over and over in order to get the information processed and stored as a memory. [1]

Contents

Types

Maintenance rehearsal

Maintenance rehearsal is a type of memory rehearsal that is useful in maintaining information in short-term memory or working memory. Because this usually involves repeating information without thinking about its meaning or connecting it to other information, the information is not usually transferred to long-term memory. [1] An example of maintenance rehearsal would be repeating a phone number mentally, or aloud until the number is entered into the phone to make the call. The number is held in working memory long enough to make the call, but never transferred to long-term memory. An hour, or even five minutes after the call, the phone number will no longer be remembered.

In 1972, Craik and Lockhart proposed that memory recall involves multiple processes operating at different levels. Maintenance rehearsal involves repeatedly processing an item at the same level (Baddeley, 2009)[ full citation needed ], which requires little attention. It has the potential to improve immediate recall, but has little effect in recall in long-term memory. [2] Depending on the information that needs to be processed determines which route of recall an individual will use. For example, if the information only needs to be used temporarily, a person will use maintenance rehearsal in working memory. However, if the information needs to be used at a later date, most likely a person will use elaborative rehearsal. In elaborative rehearsal, the information is processed at a deeper level and has the ability to move to long-term memory. In a literature review, researchers proposed a hypothesis that "Information entering working memory from the visual external world is processed by structures in the parietal and temporal lobes specialized for perceptual processing". [3]

Maintenance rehearsal has the potential to assist in long-term memory in certain situations. In a previous study, researchers looked at the difference in recall for a set of words between participants who knew they were going to be asked to recall the words, in which they repeated the words multiple times and the participants who did not know they were going to recall the words, in which they only repeated the words once (Baddeley, 2009). The group that were told they would have to recall the words at a later date did significantly better than those who were not told they would have to recall (Baddeley, 2009). There is also a positive correlation between the meaningfulness of words and how much an individual will remember them (Baddeley, 2009). The more meaning an individual associates with a certain word or a list of words, the more likely and easier it will be for them to remember them if asked to repeat them at a later date.

There can be differences in which younger and older children rehearse. Dempster (1981) [4] reports that in younger children, they tend to only rehearse one item at a time. This helps them be able to remember the item without the clutter of other items. The developmental age of the child could also play a role in the number a child is able to remember and rehearse. The older a child is, the more items they can rehearse at once. [4]

In many ways, maintenance rehearsal is useful, such as when people look at a phone number and need to replicate it in a few seconds. But for information that needs more attention and better processing, maintenance rehearsal is only a temporary fix. Individuals should use other processing techniques and elaborative rehearsal to help move information from working to long-term memory.

Working memory is commonly cited as more of a process than an actual storage and is critical to the ability to maintain and manipulate information in one's mind. [5] Because of its importance to cognition, working memory is responsible for that novel information that has immediate importance, but is not needed so much that it is committed to permanent storage in long-term memory. In this way, it exists somewhere in an area somewhere between short-term and long-term memory. [5]

The phonological loop is a concept implicated in maintenance rehearsal and is very much a function of working memory. [6] It is composed of two parts: a short-term store, and an articulatory rehearsal process that both work to constantly refresh subvocal memorization. [7] The capacity of the phonological loop is not large, only being able to hold around seven items, but is very dependent on subvocal rehearsal to refresh the memory traces of those items so that they temporarily stay in storage. [6] Similarly, subvocal rehearsal is dependent upon the short-term store in that it is where the information for the phonological loop is found. [7] In this way, both processes of the phonological loop directly rely on one another to complete the process.

In regard to learning theory, the phonological loop has been found to be especially effective when visual information is paired with auditory information. [8] For instance, if one were to read a set of information and listen to it being read audibly, they are more likely to remember it than if they were to simply read it without the audio to supplement it. [8] In this way, it is true that the maintenance rehearsal is most beneficial with rote memorization; however, it can be used as a tool for learning particularly when paired with other modes.

Elaborative rehearsal

Elaborative rehearsal is a type of memory rehearsal that is useful in transferring information into long-term memory. This type of rehearsal is effective because it involves thinking about the meaning of the information and connecting it to other information already stored in memory. It goes much deeper than maintenance rehearsal. [1]

According to the levels-of-processing effect by Fergus I. M. Craik and Robert S. Lockhart in 1972, this type of rehearsal works best because of this depth of processing.

In addition to processing novel information in which the meaning behind the information is enough to transfer it to long-term memory, another way that elaborative rehearsal works is by associating new information with information that is already held in long-term memory. [7] This approach requires the learner to engage with new information in a way that creates meaningful connections to previously-learned things, thus leading to the new information also being committed to long-term memory. [7]

An effective way of encouraging elaborative rehearsal is by engaging with the material in more than one way. For instance, discussion or study groups provide an opportunity to make discrete pieces of information more personal by attaching stories to them and creating meaningful connections to things already learned. [7] Elaborative rehearsal has strong support in learning, especially in its attention to meaningful connections across different concepts and pieces of information. [9] More specifically, elaborative rehearsal is extremely beneficial when remembering larger pieces of information such as sentences or other larger chunks. [9]

Baddeley's model

In the Baddeley's model of working memory, this ability comprises a central executive and two buffers – the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketch pad. Both storage buffers are characterized by passive storage and rehearsal information. This rehearsal function has been associated with frontal networks such as the Broca's area. [10] More specifically, subvocal rehearsal and verbal maintenance are associated with the posterior left precentral gyrus. [5] The temporary storage of the phonological loop is often attributed to the supramarginal gyrus in the parietal lobe. [5]

See also

Related Research Articles

Long-term memory (LTM) is the stage of the Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model in which informative knowledge is held indefinitely. It is defined in contrast to sensory memory, the initial stage, and short-term or working memory, the second stage, which persists for about 18 to 30 seconds. LTM is grouped into two categories known as explicit memory and implicit memory. Explicit memory is broken down into episodic and semantic memory, while implicit memory includes procedural memory and emotional conditioning.

Short-term memory is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a short interval. For example, short-term memory holds a phone number that has just been recited. The duration of short-term memory is estimated to be on the order of seconds. The commonly cited capacity of 7 items, found in Miller's Law, has been superseded by 4±1 items. In contrast, long-term memory holds information indefinitely.

Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily. It is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information. Working memory is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience.

"The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information" is one of the most highly cited papers in psychology. It was written by the cognitive psychologist George A. Miller of Harvard University's Department of Psychology and published in 1956 in Psychological Review. It is often interpreted to argue that the number of objects an average human can hold in short-term memory is 7 ± 2. This has occasionally been referred to as Miller's law.

The interference theory is a theory regarding human memory. Interference occurs in learning. The notion is that memories encoded in long-term memory (LTM) are forgotten and cannot be retrieved into short-term memory (STM) because either memory could interfere with the other. There is an immense number of encoded memories within the storage of LTM. The challenge for memory retrieval is recalling the specific memory and working in the temporary workspace provided in STM. Retaining information regarding the relevant time of encoding memories into LTM influences interference strength. There are two types of interference effects: proactive and retroactive interference.

The Decay theory is a theory that proposes that memory fades due to the mere passage of time. Information is therefore less available for later retrieval as time passes and memory, as well as memory strength, wears away. When an individual learns something new, a neurochemical "memory trace" is created. However, over time this trace slowly disintegrates. Actively rehearsing information is believed to be a major factor counteracting this temporal decline. It is widely believed that neurons die off gradually as we age, yet some older memories can be stronger than most recent memories. Thus, decay theory mostly affects the short-term memory system, meaning that older memories are often more resistant to shocks or physical attacks on the brain. It is also thought that the passage of time alone cannot cause forgetting, and that decay theory must also take into account some processes that occur as more time passes.

The Atkinson–Shiffrin model is a model of memory proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin. The model asserts that human memory has three separate components:

  1. a sensory register, where sensory information enters memory,
  2. a short-term store, also called working memory or short-term memory, which receives and holds input from both the sensory register and the long-term store, and
  3. a long-term store, where information which has been rehearsed in the short-term store is held indefinitely.

Serial-position effect is the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best, and the middle items worst. The term was coined by Hermann Ebbinghaus through studies he performed on himself, and refers to the finding that recall accuracy varies as a function of an item's position within a study list. When asked to recall a list of items in any order, people tend to begin recall with the end of the list, recalling those items best. Among earlier list items, the first few items are recalled more frequently than the middle items.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Baddeley's model of working memory</span> Model of human memory

Baddeley's model of working memory is a model of human memory proposed by Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch in 1974, in an attempt to present a more accurate model of primary memory. Working memory splits primary memory into multiple components, rather than considering it to be a single, unified construct.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Subvocalization</span> Internal process while reading

Subvocalization, or silent speech, is the internal speech typically made when reading; it provides the sound of the word as it is read. This is a natural process when reading, and it helps the mind to access meanings to comprehend and remember what is read, potentially reducing cognitive load.

The Levels of Processing model, created by Fergus I. M. Craik and Robert S. Lockhart in 1972, describes memory recall of stimuli as a function of the depth of mental processing. More analysis produce more elaborate and stronger memory than lower levels of processing. Depth of processing falls on a shallow to deep continuum. Shallow processing leads to a fragile memory trace that is susceptible to rapid decay. Conversely, deep processing results in a more durable memory trace. There are three levels of processing in this model. Structural processing, or visual, is when we remember only the physical quality of the word. Phonemic processing includes remembering the word by the way it sounds. Lastly, we have semantic processing in which we encode the meaning of the word with another word that is similar or has similar meaning. Once the word is perceived, the brain allows for a deeper processing.

Information processing theory is the approach to the study of cognitive development evolved out of the American experimental tradition in psychology. Developmental psychologists who adopt the information processing perspective account for mental development in terms of maturational changes in basic components of a child's mind. The theory is based on the idea that humans process the information they receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli. This perspective uses an analogy to consider how the mind works like a computer. In this way, the mind functions like a biological computer responsible for analyzing information from the environment. According to the standard information-processing model for mental development, the mind's machinery includes attention mechanisms for bringing information in, working memory for actively manipulating information, and long-term memory for passively holding information so that it can be used in the future. This theory addresses how as children grow, their brains likewise mature, leading to advances in their ability to process and respond to the information they received through their senses. The theory emphasizes a continuous pattern of development, in contrast with cognitive-developmental theorists such as Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development that thought development occurs in stages at a time.

Memory has the ability to encode, store and recall information. Memories give an organism the capability to learn and adapt from previous experiences as well as build relationships. Encoding allows a perceived item of use or interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored within the brain and recalled later from long-term memory. Working memory stores information for immediate use or manipulation, which is aided through hooking onto previously archived items already present in the long-term memory of an individual.

In psychology and neuroscience, memory span is the longest list of items that a person can repeat back in correct order immediately after presentation on 50% of all trials. Items may include words, numbers, or letters. The task is known as digit span when numbers are used. Memory span is a common measure of working memory and short-term memory. It is also a component of cognitive ability tests such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Backward memory span is a more challenging variation which involves recalling items in reverse order.

In mental memory, storage is one of three fundamental stages along with encoding and retrieval. Memory is the process of storing and recalling information that was previously acquired. Storing refers to the process of placing newly acquired information into memory, which is modified in the brain for easier storage. Encoding this information makes the process of retrieval easier for the brain where it can be recalled and brought into conscious thinking. Modern memory psychology differentiates between the two distinct types of memory storage: short-term memory and long-term memory. Several models of memory have been proposed over the past century, some of them suggesting different relationships between short- and long-term memory to account for different ways of storing memory.

The modality effect is a term used in experimental psychology, most often in the fields dealing with memory and learning, to refer to how learner performance depends on the presentation mode of studied items.

The irrelevant speech effect (ISE) or irrelevant sound effect is the degradation of serial recall of a list when sounds, especially speech sounds, are presented. This occurs even if the list items are presented visually. The sounds do not need to be a language the participant understands, or even a real language; human speech sounds are sufficient to produce this effect.

The development of memory is a lifelong process that continues through adulthood. Development etymologically refers to a progressive unfolding. Memory development tends to focus on periods of infancy, toddlers, children, and adolescents, yet the developmental progression of memory in adults and older adults is also circumscribed under the umbrella of memory development.

In cognitive psychology, Brown–Peterson task refers to a cognitive exercise designed to test the limits of working memory duration. The task is named for two notable experiments published in the 1950s in which it was first documented, the first by John Brown and the second by husband-and-wife team Lloyd and Margaret Peterson.

Unitary theories of memory are hypotheses that attempt to unify mechanisms of short-term and long-term memory. One can find early contributions to unitary memory theories in the works of John McGeoch in the 1930s and Benton Underwood, Geoffrey Keppel, and Arthur Melton in the 1950s and 1960s. Robert Crowder argued against a separate short-term store starting in the late 1980s. James Nairne proposed one of the first unitary theories, which criticized Alan Baddeley's working memory model, which is the dominant theory of the functions of short-term memory. Other theories since Nairne have been proposed; they highlight alternative mechanisms that the working memory model initially overlooked.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Goldstein, B. (2011). Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience--with coglab manual. (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
  2. ↑ Greene, R. L. (1987). "Effects of maintenance rehearsal on human memory". Psychological Bulletin. 102 (3): 403–413. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.102.3.403.
  3. ↑ Jonides, J.; Lacey, S.C.; Nee, D.E. (2005). "Processes of working memory in mind and brain". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 14: 2–5. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00323.x.
  4. 1 2 Dempster, Frank N. (1981). "Memory span: Sources of individual and developmental differences". Psychological Bulletin. 89 (1): 63–100. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.89.1.63.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Nee, E. N.; Askren, M. K.; Berman, M. G.; Demlralp, E.; Krawitz, A.; Jonides, J. (2012). "A meta-analysis of executive components of working memory". Cerebral Cortex. 23 (2): 264–282. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhs007. PMC   3584956 . PMID   22314046.
  6. 1 2 Baddeley, A.; Eyesneck, M. W.; Anderson, M. C. (2015). Memory. New York: Psychology Press.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 Reisberg, D. (1997). Cognition: Exploring the science of the mind. New York: Norton & Co.
  8. 1 2 Ginns, P. (2005). "Meta-analysis of the modality effect". Learning and Instruction. 15 (4): 313–331. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2005.07.001.
  9. 1 2 Bransford, J. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school (Expanded ed.). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. p. 94.
  10. ↑ Garon, N.; Bryson, S.; Smith, I. (2008). "Executive Function in Preschoolers: A Review Using an Integrative Framework". Psychological Bulletin. 134 (1): 31–60. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.31.
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