The Military Government of Veracruz[1] (Spanish: Gobierno Militar de Veracruz) was a provisional military government established during the American occupation of Veracruz in 1914 that lasted from April 21 to November 23.
José Azueta is considered a Mexican hero for his actions during the Battle of Veracruz
U.S. Army Brigadier General Frederick Funston was placed in control of the administration of the port. Assigned to his staff as an intelligence officer was a young Captain Douglas MacArthur.[2]
Mexican President Victoriano Huerta was not able to respond to the U.S. invasion due to his preoccupation with the Mexican Revolution. He had to contend with numerous revolts across his country, the most notable of which were led in Chihuahua by Pancho Villa and in the state of Morelos by Emiliano Zapata.[3]Venustiano Carranza, previously an ally of the federal government, also revolted against Huerta in Coahuila, the state where he was formerly governor.[4] These rebellions eventually culminated in the Battle of Zacatecas[5] on the 24th of June, 1914, where the Federal army lost 5,000 soldiers.[6] The result was instrumental in bringing about Huerta's resignation.
The occupation brought the United States and Mexico to the brink of war and worsened relations between the two countries for many years. Argentina, Brazil, and Chile, who at the time were negotiating the ABC pact,[7] a proposed economic and political treaty to prevent conflict in South America, held the Niagara Falls peace conference in Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada, on May 20 to avoid an all-out war over this incident and to prevent American hegemony over the region. A plan was formed in June for the U.S. troops to withdraw from Veracruz after General Huerta surrendered the reins of his government to a new regime and Mexico assured the United States that it would receive no indemnity for its losses in the recent chaotic events.[8] Huerta soon afterwards left office and gave his government to Carranza. Carranza, who was still quite unhappy with U.S. troops occupying Veracruz,[8] rejected the rest of the agreement.[8] In November 1914, after the Convention of Aguascalientes ended and Carranza failed to resolve his differences with revolutionary generals Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata, Carranza left office for a short period and handed control to Eulalio Gutiérrez Ortiz.
"Defensores de Veracruz en 1914" Memorial in Mexico City. This monument celebrates the Mexican defenders of Veracruz.
During this brief absence from power, however, Carranza still controlled Veracruz and Tamaulipas. After leaving Mexico City, Carranza fled to the state of Veracruz, made the city of Cordoba the capital of his regime and agreed to accept the rest of the terms of Niagara Falls peace plan. The U.S. troops officially departed on November 23.[8] Despite their previous spat, diplomatic ties between the U.S. and the Carranza regime greatly extended,[clarification needed] following the departure of U.S. troops from Veracruz.[8]
After the fighting ended, U.S. Secretary of the NavyJosephus Daniels ordered that fifty-six Medals of Honor be awarded to participants in this action, the most for any single action before or since. This amount was half as many as had been awarded for the Spanish–American War, and close to half the number that would be awarded during World War I and the Korean War. A critic claimed that the excess medals were awarded by lot.[9][10] Major Smedley Butler, a recipient of one of the nine Medals of Honor awarded to Marines, later tried to return it, being incensed at this "unutterable foul perversion of Our Country's greatest gift"[citation needed][11] and claiming he had done nothing heroic. The Department of the Navy told him to not only keep it, but wear it.
The controversy surrounding the Veracruz Medals of Honor led to stricter standards for the awarding of the Medal of Honor and the establishment of lower ranking medals to recognize a wider range of accomplishments.
Mexico's Naval Lt. Azueta and a Naval Military School cadet, Cadet Midshipman Virgilio Uribe, who died during the fighting, are now part of the roll call of honor read by all branches of the Mexican Armed Forces in all military occasions, alongside the six Niños Héroes of the Military College (nowadays the Heroic Military Academy) who died in defense of the nation during the Battle of Chapultepec on September 13, 1847. As a result of the brave defense put up by the Naval School cadets and faculty, it has now become the Heroic Naval Military School of Mexico in their honor by virtue of a congressional resolution in 1949.
Political consequences
As an immediate reaction to the military invasion of Veracruz several anti-U.S. riots broke out in Mexico, Argentina, Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, and Uruguay.[12] U.S. citizens were expelled from Mexican territory and some had to be accommodated in refugee campuses at New Orleans, Texas City, and San Diego.[13] Even the British government was privately irritated, because they had previously agreed with Woodrow Wilson that the United States would not invade Mexico without prior warning.[12] The military invasion of Veracruz was also a decisive factor in favor of keeping Mexico neutral in World War I.[14] Mexico refused to participate with the United States in its military excursion in Europe and guaranteed German companies they could keep their operations open, especially in Mexico City.[15] Nevertheless, the tension between the U.S. and Mexico was great enough that the German governmentoffered to help Mexico reconquer territory lost to the U.S. in the Mexican American war in exchange for Mexican soldiers to help Germany in World War I.[16] The Mexican government refused this offer.
U.S. president Woodrow Wilson considered another military invasion of Veracruz and Tampico in 1917–1918,[17][18] so as to take control of Tehuantepec Isthmus and Tampico oil fields,[18][19] but this time the new Mexican President Venustiano Carranza gave the order to destroy the oil fields in case the Marines tried to land there.[20] As a scholar[who?] once wrote: "Carranza may not have fulfilled the social goals of the revolution, but he kept the gringos out of Mexico City".[21][22]
↑ "The Taking of Zacatecas"(PDF). unam.mx. Universidad National Autonoma de Mexico. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
↑ Katz, Friedrich (January 1, 1981). The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States and the Mexican Revolution. University of Chicago Press. ISBN0226425894.
Francisco "Pancho" Villa was a Mexican revolutionary and prominent figure in the Mexican Revolution. He was a key figure in the revolutionary movement that forced out President Porfirio Díaz and brought Francisco I. Madero to power in 1911. When Madero was ousted by a coup led by General Victoriano Huerta in February 1913, Villa joined the anti-Huerta forces in the Constitutionalist Army led by Venustiano Carranza. After the defeat and exile of Huerta in July 1914, Villa broke with Carranza. Villa dominated the meeting of revolutionary generals that excluded Carranza and helped create a coalition government. Emiliano Zapata and Villa became formal allies in this period. Like Zapata, Villa was strongly in favor of land reform, but did not implement it when he had power. At the height of his power and popularity in late 1914 and early 1915, the U.S. considered recognizing Villa as Mexico's legitimate authority.
The Mexican Revolution was an extended sequence of armed regional conflicts in Mexico from 20 November 1910 to 1 December 1920. It has been called "the defining event of modern Mexican history" and destroyed the Federal Army, its replacement by a revolutionary army, and the transformation of Mexican culture and government. The northern Constitutionalist faction prevailed on the battlefield and drafted the present-day Constitution of Mexico, which aimed to create a strong central government. Revolutionary generals held power from 1920 to 1940. The revolutionary conflict was primarily a civil war, but foreign powers, having important economic and strategic interests in Mexico, figured in the outcome of Mexico's power struggles; the U.S. involvement was particularly high. The conflict led to the deaths of around one million people, mostly non-combatants.
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José Venustiano Carranza de la Garza, known as Venustiano Carranza, was a Mexican land owner and politician who served as President of Mexico from 1917 until his assassination in 1920, during the Mexican Revolution. He was previously Mexico's de facto head of state as Primer Jefe of the Constitutionalist faction from 1914 to 1917, and previously served as a senator and governor for Coahuila. He played the leading role in drafting the Constitution of 1917 and maintained Mexican neutrality in World War I.
Major General Smedley Darlington Butler, nicknamed the Maverick Marine, was a senior United States Marine Corps officer. During his 34-year career, he fought in the Philippine–American War, the Boxer Rebellion, the Mexican Revolution, World War I, and the Banana Wars. At the time of his death, Butler had become the most decorated Marine in U.S. military history. By the end of his career, Butler had received sixteen medals, including five for heroism; he is the only Marine to be awarded the Brevet Medal as well as two Medals of Honor, all for separate actions.
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Ignacio Bonillas Fraijo was a Mexican diplomat. He was a Mexican ambassador to the United States and held a degree in mine engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was tapped by President Venustiano Carranza as his successor in the 1920 presidential elections, but the revolt of three Sonoran revolutionary generals overthrew Carranza before those elections took place.
The Battle of Veracruz began with the occupation of the port city of Veracruz by the United States and lasted for seven months. The incident came in the midst of poor diplomatic relations between the United States and Mexico, and was related to the ongoing Mexican Revolution.
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Luis Vicente Cabrera Lobato was a Mexican lawyer, politician and writer. His pen name for his political essays was "Lic. Blas Urrea"; the more literary works he wrote as "Lucas Rivera". During the late presidency of Porfirio Díaz, he was a vocal critic of the regime. He became an important civilian intellectual in the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920).
Mexico was a neutral country in World War I, which lasted from 1914 to 1918. The war broke out in Europe in August 1914 as the Mexican Revolution was in the midst of full-scale civil war between factions that had helped oust General Victoriano Huerta from the presidency earlier that year. The Constitutionalist Army of Venustiano Carranza under the generalship of Alvaro Obregón defeated the army of Pancho Villa in the Battle of Celaya in April 1915.
José Refugio Velasco Martínez (1849-1919) was a Mexican Divisional general as well as a governor of several Mexican states. He enlisted in the Mexican army when he was 17 years old, where he carried out his entire military life without going through any military college, fully training in the field. He stood out in the Second French Intervention in Mexico, during the Porfiriato, and finally in the Mexican Revolution. He came to play the position of Secretary of War and Navy of Mexico and had a relevant role in the end of the dictatorship of Victoriano Huerta.
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