Myxotrichum chartarum

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Myxotrichum chartarum
Myxotrichum chartarum gymnothecium.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Eurotiomycetes
Order: Onygenales
Family: Myxotrichaceae
Genus: Myxotrichum
Species:
M. chartarum
Binomial name
Myxotrichum chartarum
Kunze (1823) [1]
Synonyms [2]
  • Oncidium chartarum(Kunze) Nees (1823)
  • Actinospira chartarum(Kunze) Corda (1854)
  • Myxotrichum carminoparumRobak (1932)

Myxotrichum chartarum is a psychrophilic and cellulolytic fungus first discovered in Germany by Gustav Kunze in 1823. Its classification has changed many times over its history to better reflect the information available at the time. Currently, M. chartarum is known to be an ascomycete surrounded by a gymnothecium composed of ornate spines and releases asexual ascospores. The presence of cellulolytic processes are common in fungi within the family Myxotrichaceae. M. chartarum is one of many Myxotrichum species known to degrade paper and paper products. Evidence of M. chartarum "red spot" mold formation, especially on old books, can be found globally. As a result, this fungal species and other cellulolytic molds are endangering old works of art and books. Currently, there is no evidence that suggests that species within the family Myxotrichaceae are pathogenic.

Contents

History and taxonomy

Myxotrichum chartarum was discovered by Gustav Kunze in 1823, along with another species in the new genus Myxotrichum , Myxotrichum murorum . [1]

There has been much confusion within the genus Myxotrichum due to numerous revisions in classification over the years and the scarcity of isolations. [1] [3] Eventually, the genus, Myxotrichum became associated with ascomycota fungi which are dematiaceous hyphomycetes, commonly known as black yeasts or moulds. [3] At the microscopic level, these fungi have a mesh-like surrounding structures, peridium, with hooked appendages. [3]

It was mistakenly placed in the genus Oncidium by Nees, also in 1823, though that name which was already in use for a genus of orchid, giving Myxotrichum priority. [1] [3] [2] In 1838, August Carl Joseph Corda classified M. chartarum as a hyphomycete in the family Sporotrichacheae, as species belonging to this family had ornate appendages resembling deer antlers. [4] In 1854, Corda separated M. chartarum from Myxotrichum into the newly established genus, Actinospira because he believed it to produce conidia rather than ascospores. [1] In 1959, Kuehn, among other investigators, reviewed the status of the family Gymnoascaceae and placed M. chartarum into the ascomycetous genus, Myxotrichum rather than the newly established genus for conidial forms, Myxotrichella. [1]

In 1875, Fuckel declared M. chartarum to be the conidial form of Chaetomium kunzeanum. [4] Fries thought M. chartarum was a conidial form of Chaetomium chartarum. [5] His opinion was supported by Boulanger in 1897. [4] Their revelation was founded because of the high resemblance between Chaetomium and Myxotrichum fungal families due to the presence of ornamental hairs. [4] [1] In 1889, Richon thought M. chartarum was the conidial form of Cephalotheca sulfurea, disputing the claim of Fuckel. [4] In 1891, Constantin showed that M. chartarum belonged to the newly established family, ascomycete of the family Gymnoascaceae, for ascomycetes that lacked true cleistothecia or perithecia. [1] In 1892, Rabenhorst classified M. chartarum into the order Gymnoascaceae.[ clarification needed ] [4] This was later supported by Schroter in 1893. [4] Fischer later recognized the existence of ascospores in M. chartarum, but a distinct lack of conidial structures. [4] In 1893, Schroeter reviewed family Gymnoascaceae and placed species with uncinate appendages within the genus, Myxotrichum without regard for other characteristics. [1]

Different forms of M. chartarum were isolated by Robak and Udagawa that resembled a phenotypically similar species. [3] The isolate discovered by Robak (1932) of M. carminoparum resembled M. chartarum [3] in every way except in the characteristically flattened apical area. Another isolate was discovered by Udagawa (1963) to have flattened appendages, but the size of the ascomata was smaller, resembling those from M. carminoparum. [3] Later, the species, M. chartarum and M. carminoparum were merged due to the high resemblance between the two species.

Growth and morphology

Intercalary arthroconidia of Myxotrichum chartarum (UAMH 10244) from colony grown for 36d, photographed in Phase Contrast microscopy. 10244 sc 36d PH arthroconidia.jpg
Intercalary arthroconidia of Myxotrichum chartarum (UAMH 10244) from colony grown for 36d, photographed in Phase Contrast microscopy.

Growth in its natural environment

The ascospores can also be described as being yellow to orange in colour with a rounded football shape having longitudinal striations and a diameter between 6-8 μm on the long side and 5-8 μm on the short side. [1] [3] [6] [7] Asci appear hyaline, globular, and contain the typical quantity of 8 ascospores each, the size of which are 3-5 μm on the long side and 2-3 μm on the short side. [1] [3] [7] When the spores mature, they are released en masse, producing a cloud of brown-coloured dust. [7] Ascocarps appear dark and spherical with short appendages, and when filled with its yellow to orange spores, the ascocarp can appear green or copper. [1] [3] The diameter of the ascocarp is 150-555 μm. [1] The spore mass fills the ascocarps between one-third and three-fourths of the total volume at peak maturity. [1] [3] The surrounding Gymnothecium has septate appendages that are straight and elongated. Branching points present as uncinate, or curved spines that are wider or flattened at the apices. [1] [3] Commonly found in Myxotrichum species are the secondary and tertiary branching of peridial hyphae. These branches can be identified by the lighter colouring in comparison to the ascocarp of the fungi, or truncation that results from the fragility of such branching. These truncations were previously thought to have been the release of conidiophores, but no evidence was found on initial conidiophore attachment. [1]

Life cycle

There are few records of the asexual or anamorphic stage within the family Gymnascaceae. [1] Descriptions made by Kuehn (1955) and Robak (1932) described oidia and chlamydospores, though rare in occurrence. However, Benjamin (1956) acknowledged that there were indeed arthrospores and aleuriospores present in Gymnascaceae. [1] [3] The anamorphs of M. chartarum may belong to the genera, Malbranchea and Oidiodendron. [3]

Growth in laboratory culture

In culture and grown at 25 °C, M. chartarum appears yellow and fluffy. [3] Some cultures had areas that were black in appearance, which were due to visible mature ascomata. [3] However, growth was restricted at this temperature, as fungi in the family Myxotrichaceae have a preference for temperatures below 18 °C. [3] [4] At temperatures of 18 °C, the fungus grew at 2 cm a month. [7] Optimal growing temperatures were described as being between +5 and +7 °C. [1] [3] Production of a red-brown pigment when grown on mycelia and on certain culture media, functions to detoxify the surrounding environment. [3] [8] [9] This is due to a reaction produced by the laccases secreted in the presence of polyphenols. [8] The presence of pigmentation occurs early on for polyphenol detection. [8] However, this effect weakens when the fungus is exposed to higher levels of polyphenols, indicating metabolic function inhibition caused by the presence of these compounds. [8]

Habitat and ecology

M. chartarum is known for its inhabitation of paper and paper products. The specific epithet, chartarum, originated from the Latin word for paper and is in reference to its initial discovery from paper in books, [7] and its ability to decay these materials through the production of cellulose-degrading enzymes (cellulases). [10] It was deemed a “material pathogen”, since it is able to degrade specific materials for a source of nutrition. [10] It has also been recorded to inhabit other materials such as, drywall, straw, decaying leather, cloth, grouse dung, rabbit dung, bat guano, soil, leaves and fruit. [1] [10] [11] [3] [12] Reports of M. chartarum have come from around the world. Known distribution areas are as follows: Germany, Russia, Italy, France, Switzerland, England, Japan, Austria-Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Maine, Massachusetts, Ontario, New York. [1] [3] The endemic region of this fungus is currently unknown. The presence of curved spines allow the fungus to adhere to the fur of animals, allowing the fungus to disperse to other areas. [4]

It has been observed by multiple researchers that M. chartarum exhibited slow growth between temperatures of 5-7 °C, so this fungus is classified as a psychrophilic organism. [1] [7] [3] However, no growth was observed at 37 °C and since it is unable to grow at the human body temperature, this fungus is not a disease agent or an opportunistic pathogen. [10] As found by Tribe and Weber (2002), [7] optimal growth in culture can be achieved on mineral salt agar with a sheet of Cellophane as the only carbon source. [7] In basements or cellars, M. chartarum has a preference for gypsum board ceilings and building paper on concrete surfaces on the cold side of foundation walls. [11] For optimal growth, it requires a relative humidity of greater than 98%. [11] Salinity and pH preferences are unknown, but it is thought to be halo-tolerant. [11]

Related Research Articles

An ascocarp, or ascoma, is the fruiting body (sporocarp) of an ascomycete phylum fungus. It consists of very tightly interwoven hyphae and millions of embedded asci, each of which typically contains four to eight ascospores. Ascocarps are most commonly bowl-shaped (apothecia) but may take on a spherical or flask-like form that has a pore opening to release spores (perithecia) or no opening (cleistothecia).

<i>Xylaria hypoxylon</i> Species of fungus

Xylaria hypoxylon is a species of bioluminescent fungus in the family Xylariaceae. It is known by a variety of common names, such as the candlestick fungus, the candlesnuff fungus, carbon antlers, or the stag's horn fungus. The fruit bodies, characterized by erect, elongated black branches with whitened tips, typically grow in clusters on decaying hardwood. The fungus can cause a root rot in hawthorn and gooseberry plants.

Crinigera is a genus of fungi in the division Ascomycota. The relationship of this taxon to other taxa within the phylum is unknown, and it has not yet been placed with certainty into any class, order, or family. This is a monotypic genus, containing the single species Crinigera maritima. Crinigera maritima is a marine ascomycota fungus species with characteristic appendaged cleistothecia and ascospores that cling onto substrates of wood, algae, or sand. It is found in the mesohaline zone of many different coastal countries. It has been mistaken for a new fungal species Dryosphaera navigans and has yet to be assigned to a class, order, or family.

<i>Chlamydosauromyces</i> Genus of fungi

Chlamydosauromyces punctatus is the sole species in the monotypic genus of fungi, Chlamydosauromyces in the family, Onygenaceae. It was found in the skin shed from frilled lizard. This fungus is mesophilic and digests hair. It reproduces both sexually and asexually. The fungus has so far not been reported to be pathogenic.

<i>Coccomyces dentatus</i> Species of fungus

Coccomyces dentatus is a species of fungus in the family Rhytismataceae. A widespread species, particularly in temperate areas, it colonizes the dead fallen leaves of vascular plants, particularly oak and chestnut. The fungus apothecia, which form in the epidermal layer of the leaf host, resemble dark hexagonal spots scattered on a multi-colored mosaic pattern bounded by thin black lines. When mature, the apothecia open by triangular flaps to release spores. The anamorph form of C. dentatus is Tricladiopsis flagelliformis. Lookalike species can be distinguished by the shape of the apothecia, or by microscopic characteristics.

<i>Pseudogymnoascus</i> Genus of fungi

Pseudogymnoascus is a genus of fungi in the family Pseudeurotiaceae.

<i>Chaetomium globosum</i> Species of fungus

Chaetomium globosum is a well-known mesophilic member of the mold family Chaetomiaceae. It is a saprophytic fungus that primarily resides on plants, soil, straw, and dung. Endophytic C. globosum assists in cellulose decomposition of plant cells. They are found in habitats ranging from forest plants to mountain soils across various biomes. C. globosum colonies can also be found indoors and on wooden products.

Chaetomium atrobrunneum is a darkly pigmented mould affiliated with the fungal division, Ascomycota. This species is predominantly saprotrophic, although it has been known to infect animals including humans, showing a proclivity for the tissues of the central nervous system. Chaetomium atrobrunneum was described in 1949 from a mouldy military mattress cover obtained from the island of Guadalcanal.

Amauroascus kuehnii is a fungus in the phylum Ascomycota, class Eurotiomycetes. It is keratinophilic but not known to cause any human disease. It has been isolated from animal dungs, soil, and keratinous surfaces of live or deceased animals.

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Botryotrichum murorum is a common soil and indoor fungus resembling members of the genus Chaetomium. The fungus has no known asexual state, and unlike many related fungi, is intolerant of high heat exhibiting limited growth when incubated at temperatures over 35 °C. In rare cases, the fungus is an opportunistic pathogen of marine animals and humans causing cutaneous and subcutaneous infection.

<i>Chaetomium elatum</i> Species of fungus

Chaetomium elatum is a very common and widely distributed saprotrophic fungus of the Chaetomiaceae family of molds which has been found to grow on many different substances all over the world. It was first established by Gustav Kunze after he observed it growing on dead leaves. Its defining features that distinguish it from other Chaetomium species are its extremely coarse terminal hairs and the lemon-shaped morphology of its ascospores. It produces many metabolites with potential biotechnology uses including one with promise against the rice blast disease fungus, Magnaporthe grisea. It shows very little pathogenic ability causing confirmed disease in only a few plant species.

Collariella bostrychodes is a fungal decomposer of lignin and carbohydrate in the family Chaetomiaceae commonly found in soil and dung. The fungus is distinguished by a darkened collar-like ostiole around the ostiolar pore, giving the fungus its name. The fungus is highly variable in shape and form, giving raise to the belief that there are two subclades in the species. The ascospores range from lemon-shaped to nearly spherical with slightly pointed ends. It can grow to be pale green and later turn pale bluish grey or olivaceous with age. The fungus produces the toxic secondary metabolite, chaetochromin.

<i>Chaetomium subspirale</i> Species of fungus

Chaetomium subspirale is a fungus from the phylum Ascomycota. It was described by A. H. Chivers in 1912 in America. The species has sexual fruiting bodies that are ornamented with characteristic, coiled hairs giving it a wooly appearance. C. subspirale colonies are brown, which the characteristic hairs are also responsible for. It is commonly found in various soil and dung samples. C. subspirale produces the mycotoxin, oxaspirodion, which inhibits inducible TNF-a expression and inhibits the activation of the transcription factor NF-kappaB.

Botryotrichum piluliferum is a fungal species first identified in 1885 by Saccardo and Marchal. It was discovered to be the asexual state of a member of the ascomycete genus, Chaetomium. The name B. piluliferum now applies to the fungus in all its states. B. piluliferum has been found worldwide in a wide range of habitats such as animal dung and vegetation. The colonies of this fungus start off white and grow rapidly to a brown colour. The conidia are smooth and white. B. piluliferum grows optimally at a temperature of 25-30 °C and a pH of 5.5.

Arcopilus aureus is a plant and soil fungus in the genus Arcopilus. It was first identified by A. H. Chivers in 1912, who named it Chaetomium aureum. It was later transferred to the genus Arcopilus by Wang and colleagues. The fungus has recently been recognized to have industrial use for the production of the metabolites resveratrol. and sclerotiorin Additionally, A. aureus has high lead tolerance and clearance, suggesting a potential role in environmental biotechnology.

<i>Ctenomyces serratus</i> Species of fungus

Ctenomyces serratus is a keratinophilic fungal soil saprotroph classified by the German mycologist, Michael Emil Eduard Eidam in 1880, who found it growing on an old decayed feather. Many accounts have shown that it has a global distribution, having been isolated in select soils as well as on feathers and other substrates with high keratin content. It has also been found in indoor dust of hospitals and houses in Kanpur, Northern India and as a common keratinophilic soil fungus in urban Berlin. This species has been associated with nail infections in humans as well as skin lesions and slower hair growth in guinea pigs.

Auxarthron californiense is a fungus within the family Onygenaceae family and one of the type species of the genus Auxarthron. A. californiense is generally distributed around the world and it is frequently found on dung and in soil near the entrances of animal burrows.

Oidiodendron cereale is a species of ascomycetes fungi in the order Helotiales. This fungus is found globally in temperate climates where average summer temperatures are below 25 °C, but there have been scattered reports from tropical and subtropical environments. It is predominantly found in soil, but little is known regarding their ecological roles in nature. However, an enzymatic study from Agriculture Canada showed that O. cereale can break down a variety of plant, fungal, and animal based substrates found in soil, which may have beneficial effects for plants. On rare occasions, this fungus is found on human skin and hair. There has been one reported case of O. cereale infection in 1969, causing Neurodermitis Nuchae.

<i>Myxotrichum</i> Genus of fungi

Myxotrichum is a genus of fungi belonging to the family Myxotrichaceae.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Orr, G F; Kuehn, H H; Plunkett, O A (1963). "The Genus Myxotrichum Kunze". Can J Bot. 41 (10): 1457–1480. doi:10.1139/b63-127.
  2. 1 2 "Oncidium chartarum (Kunze) Nees". www.indexfungorum.org. Index Fungorum. Retrieved 2018-11-23.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Currah, R S (1985). . Taxonomy of the Onygenales: Arthrodermataceae, Gymnoascaceae, Myxotrichaceae and Onygenaceae (24 ed.). Mycotaxon. pp. 1–216.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 See, P (1919). La florule du papier. - Étude systématique et biologique des champignons chromogènes du papier piqué. Vol. 815. Université de Paris.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  5. ↑ Fries, E M (1836–1838). Epicrisis systematis mycologici, seu synopsis Hymenomycetum. pp. 346–349.
  6. ↑ Ellis, M B; Ellis, J P (1988). Microfungi on miscellaneous substrates: an identification handbook (I ed.). Netherlands: Springer Netherlands. ISBN   9780855462482.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Tribe, H T; Weber, R W S (2002). "A low-temperature fungus from cardboard, Myxotrichum chartarum". Mycologist. 16 (1): 3–5. doi:10.1017/S0269915X02006146.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Guiraud, P; Steiman, R; Seiglemurandi, F; Benoitguyod, JL (1995). "Comparison of the toxicity of various lignin-related phenolic compounds toward selected fungi perfecti and fungi imperfecti" (PDF). Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 32 (1): 29–33. doi:10.1006/eesa.1995.1081. PMID   8565874.
  9. ↑ Sato, Y; Aoki, M; Kigawa, R (2014). "Microbial deterioration of tsunami-affected paper-based objects" (PDF). National Research Institute for Cultural Properties Tokyo. (2012): 51–65.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Sterflinger, K; Pinzari, F (2012). "The revenge of time: fungal deterioration of cultural heritage with particular reference to books, paper and parchment". Environ Microbiol. 14 (3): 559–66. doi: 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2011.02584.x . PMID   22004478.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Nunez, M; Hammer, H (2014). "Microbial specialists in below‐grade foundation walls in Scandinavia" (PDF). Int J Indoor Env and Health. 24 (5): 543–51. doi:10.1111/ina.12095. hdl: 10642/2401 . PMID   24527795.
  12. ↑ Nováková, A (2009). "Microscopic fungi isolated from the Domica Cave system (Slovak Karst National Park, Slovakia). A review". International Journal of Speleology. 38 (1): 8. doi: 10.5038/1827-806X.38.1.8 .
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