Nedumkotta

Last updated

The relics of the entrance of travancore lines Nedumkotta.jpg
The relics of the entrance of travancore lines

Nedumkotta or Travancore lines was a wall built as a protection against consistent invasions from Mysore during the (de facto) rule of Tipu Sultan. It was built by the Dharma Raja Karthika Thirunal (d.A D 1764), King of Travancore with the request, support and permission of the Kingdom of Kochi. [1] It was constructed by Rama Varma under the supervision of his Commander Eustachius De Lannoy. The work was started in 1762 it was completed only by 1775. The lines consist of a ditch about sixteen feet broad and twenty feet deep with a thick bamboo hedge in it, a slight parapet and good rampart and bastions on rising grounds almost flanking each other from one extreme of the lines to the other. [2] The construction of Nedumkotta or the Travancore Lines is considered to be a unique and unparallel episode in Indian History by historians. [3]

Contents

Background

Hyder Ali HyderAli.jpg
Hyder Ali

The Nedumkotta was a defence fortification constructed along the northern borders of the erstwhile Travancore allied Cochin State.of 1757-1762AD.The places north of Nedumkotta was under Zamorin occupied Cochin.(1757-1762)It passed through the territories of the then Cochin State.

The Nedumkotta was built primarily to resist the invasion under Hyder Ali Khan against Travancore State and southern parts Cochin state.. It was raised mainly with clay and mud, and reinforced with stones, laterite and granite at strategic places. It started from the KrishanKotta on the west coast, above Kodungallur, and stretched up to the Anamala Hills on the Western Ghats. It was about 48 km long, 20 feet wide and 12 feet high. The lines consisted of a ditch, sixteen feet wide and twenty feet deep with a thick bamboo hedge, a slight parapet and rampart and bastions on rising grounds almost flanking each other from one side of the lines to the other. [4]

Dharma Raja of Travancore Dharmaraja of Travancore.jpg
Dharma Raja of Travancore
The Travancore lines. Meloor Gate can be seen. Work by Commander Johan Gerard van Angelbeek Meloor gate of Nedumkotta.png
The Travancore lines. Meloor Gate can be seen. Work by Commander Johan Gerard van Angelbeek

Its alignment was along the Periyar river on the west coast up to Chalakudy from where it went along the Chalakudy river up to the Annamalai Hills in the east. There were underground cells to store gunpowder and other war materials, special chambers for soldiers to live, and look-outs and mounted field-guns all along the fortification. Besides, on the north side of the fortification, ditches were dug twenty feet wide and sixteen feet deep, and filled with thorny plants, poisonous snakes, and hidden weapons. On the south side as well as on the top of the fortification, wide roads were laid for the convenience of military movements. The construction work was started in 1762 and was completed only by 1775 where it was extended to Vypin. [6]

The dislike of Tippu Sultan was that parts of the Travancore Lines were built on Cochin territory and a large part of the Cochin State was behind the Travancore lines. This was a violation of Mysore's territorial agreement and was considered as encroachments. Tippu Sultan contacted Travancore Raja to destroy the Lines as early as possible. [7] Tippu Sultan wrote to the Raja, "The Cochin Raja has been my tributary fifty or sixty years – after I possessed the Calicut country you erected lines on a part of the Cochin country. This conduct is not proper you must demolish the line" [8] To which Cochin Raja replied that the areas where the Lines were established was given to him earlier than the cochin country became a tributary to Mysore. "I possessed it and had lines were erected on it when I was included in the Treaty of peace which the Honourable English Company made with you. If I had not a right to it, why did not you then demand it". [9]

In about June–August 1787 after learning about the geography of Malabar and Travancore and constructing several roads leading into Travancore both from the north by coastal side and from the east by the Cambam and Guddalur passes, Tippu Sultan then invaded Malabar. He persecuted the people and chiefs massacring all those who refused to take up Islam. Many families including that of Samoothiri fled Malabar and took refuge in Travancore. Around 30,000 Noble Brahmin families were sheltered under Dharmaraja of Travancore. This angered Tippu and he wanted Cochin to surrender all those families who fled Malabar, But Raja refused to give in. Tippu could not make a bold appeal to the war as Travancore was included in the Peace Treaty between Mysore and the East India company as a friendly country to the company. Tippu then resorted to Samoothiri to attack cochin promising him in return the restoration of a portion of his territory. Samoothiri refused to join the plan. Tippu then requested the help of Cochin Raja to speak to Dharma raja to become a tributary of Mysore which was then was defied by stating that nothing would be done against the will of the East India company. This enraged Tippu, who planned then to invade the Travancore demolishing Nedumkotta.

The Maharaja informed the Madras Governor, Sir Archibald Campbell, the proceedings and requested him to lend him 4 English officers and 12 Sergeants to command his army, and anticipating an early invasion by Tippu, commanded Dewan Kesava Pillai to look to the frontier fortifications. Governor then Wrote to Tippu that an invasion against Travancore would be considered as a breach of the Treaty made with the Company. He also offered two or three battalions to assist Raja in his frontiers. Two regiments under Captain Knox were stationed near Ayacotta for the first time and Mr. George Powney, a Civil Officer was sent as an agent of the Company to the Travancore Court. Travancore Raja also entered in to a treaty with Dutch Army by which he was handed over the Cranganore Fort and Aycotta.

The structure

Kottamuri in Chalakudy where the Fort was breached, A national highway pass right through it Kottamuri.jpg
Kottamuri in Chalakudy where the Fort was breached, A national highway pass right through it

The fortification was constructed during the regime of Rama Varma Raja, popularly known as Dharma Raja of Travancore, and under the direct guidance and supervision of the then Prime Minister, Ayyappan Marthanda Pillai, and the then Commander of the Travancore Army, the Dutch Captain D'Lenoy. This historic defence line was comparable to the Great Wall of China except that the latter was more ancient and greater in length. It was under the protective cover of this Nedumkotta that a small army of Travancoreans under the command of Raja Keshavadas defeated and frustrated near Alwaye a formidable army led by Tipu Sultan. Today there is no physical evidence of the historic Nedumkotta in the form of even ruins anywhere in the Chalakudy taluk -Konoor (Koratty Kizhakkummuri), Muringoor Thekkummury, Kadukutty, Kuruvilassery, Pallipuram and Poyya- through which it passed. Names of forts remains in Chettuva, Mullurkara, Thrissur and Enamanakkal. However, some place names having a reference to the historic fortification are still popular in the northern borders of the erstwhile Cochin and Travancore States - Krishnan Kotta (meaning Krishnan Fort), Kottamukku (fort corner), Kottamuri (part of a fort), Kottaparampu (fort land), Kotta Vazhi (fort road), Kottalaparampu (magazine ground), Palayam (cantonment), etc. It started from Pallipuram Kotta near the sea, touches Kottamukku, Krishnankotta and extended till the Foot hills of the Anamalai in the Western Ghats. The Chalakudy river and lagoon which falls on the alignment was left alone as they themselves were a barrier. A trench 20 feet (6.1 m) deep and 16 feet (4.9 m) wide was built along the northern side of the wall for the full length. At some places the wall reached 50 ft (15 m) in height. Hollows were made inside where about 100 soldiers could hide and make an ambush. A company of soldiers was stationed about every kilometre with ammunition store house at strategic points. There were also caves in the nearby wells to hide in the possibility of an unannounced attack. Muringoor Kottamury (3 km south of Chalakudy) is the place where the NH47 crosses the Nedumkotta.

The places where fortification once stood is in the present Chalakudy Taluk in Thrissur District, Kerala.

Attack of Tipu Sultan and its destruction

Tippu at the lines of Travancore by James Grant (c 1896) Tippoo Sahib at the lines of Travancore in the 1850s.jpg
Tippu at the lines of Travancore by James Grant (c 1896)

24 years after his father, Hyder Ali had attacked Kochi, Tipu Sultan started on a conquest to conquer Kochi and Travancore. On the night between 28 and 29 December camped six miles northward of the lines. On 31 December, Tippu marched with 14,000 infantry and 500 frontiers in the night, guided by a native of the country. Before daybreak, he possessed a large extent of the rampart on the right side flank. [10] By morning Sultan had come three miles in the inner side with his whole force without much opposition and he commanded his frontiers to level down the rampart into the 16 feet wide and 20 deep ditch which was a difficult task to be done. He then advanced without levelling the ditches and in one column, through a narrow passage. This move backfired on Mysore army as army could not move freely. They were also ambushed by a small 20-member team of Travancore army who poured in a heavy fire which killed the commander of the army and created a panic [11]

There was chaos and Sultan himself fell into the ditch over dead corps by which it was almost filled. The Sultan was only saved by some strong soldiers, who raised him on their shoulders which enabled him to ascend the counterscarp. He fell twice in the attempt to clamber up and he was crippled for life due to the fall. He was then escaped to his tent in a dhuli. Humiliated by the defeat he swore to remain in the tent until he took what was by then called by him as "the contemptible wall". The Mysore army suffered heavy casualties and army commanders like Semal Beg were killed. [12] Tippu Sultan's palanquin, his seals, rings and personal ornaments and sword fell into the Dewaan's hands as trophies. These were forwarded to the Nawab of Arcot upon his request. Several officers and men were taken prisoners; of the former five were Europeans and one was a Maharashtrian.[ citation needed ]

English historians consider the attack to be unwarranted and unnecessary. Mark Wilks records that the Sultan was directly involved in the attack, that he suffered a leg injury and was crippled for life, and that his valuable jewelry was confiscated. [13] However, based on the Mathilakam documents, A. P. Ibrahim Kunju evaluates that the Sultan was not directly involved. [14] The Madras Governor, Mr. Holland, refused to help Travancore, because he thought that the Maharaja had acted unlawfully in purchasing the Dutch forts [15] [16] [17]

such small cannons were used by Tipu Sultan as it was easy to transport them Tipu Sultan's cannon.jpg
such small cannons were used by Tipu Sultan as it was easy to transport them

The Maharaja requested the Madras Governor to issue orders to the British army to co-operate with him in case of an attack from Tippu Sultan which was expected every moment. Help was promised but never rendered on time. On the second of March Tippu again started his attacks by a skirmish outside the wall and on the sixth March he ordered his artillery to move forward. The wall sustained heavy fire of the artillery for about a month but at last yielded, [18] a breach three quarter of a mile long was formed. Later in April he came back with reinforcements and this time was able to break into the territory after making the way through the Nedumkotta. He destroyed the wall at Konoor kotaa or kottamuri and advanced further. He filled trenches for a few kilometres to enable his army to move forward. [19]

The Travancore army found that resistance was useless, retreated and the Mysoreans entered Travancore. The two battalions of the Army of East India company were just spectators without giving any aid to the Travancore army. Many portions of the wall were destroyed during war, others later eroded away due to heavy rains, and trenches were filled up. The most of the ruins whatever left have also been lost due ignorance about the historical structure among the locals. [20]

Unfortunately, there are no memorials erected anywhere in Parur, or Angamaly or Alwaye to honour the Dharma Raja, D'Lennoy who were the architects of the fort; or Raja Keshavadas under whose direct command a comparatively small army humbled and defeated the invading army of Tipu Sultan. [21]

East India company Advancing to Bangalore RobertHome - The Death of Colonel Moorhouse at the Storming of the Pettah Gate of Bangalore.jpg
East India company Advancing to Bangalore

Tippu Sultan and his advancing army encamped for the night on the vast bed of the Periyar river at Alwaye, when some discreet men of the Travancore army cut open a dam which had been erected across the river for agricultural purposes. Torrent of water came downstream and washed away war materials and moistened the gunpowder meant for the cannons and artilleries . There was heavy casualties on the Mysore army that they found themselves in utter confusion. In the meantime East India company along with its Travancore contingent fought in Coimbatore and was successful in taking down the forts. English company also attacked Srirangapattanam and Bangalore with the aid of Nawab of Arcot and Marathas. The Company declared war on the Sultan in May 1790. This was the beginning of the Third Anglo-Mysore War. Hearing the Information that the British army was planning an attack on Srirangapatnam he started retreating from Travancore. On 24 May 1790 Tippu Sultan marched back to save his kingdom on 24 May 1790. [22]

See also

Sources

1. Valath, V.,V., K., Keralathile sthalacharithrangal - Thrissur Jilla(in Malayalam), [23] Kerala Sahitya academy 1981. 2. Kerala Charitradharakal (Historical Documents) by Naduvattam Gopalakrishnan, pp. 84–89.

3. Thiruvithamkur Charitram (Travancore History) by P. Sankunni Menon, p. 161.

4. Kerala Charitram (Kerala History) by A. Sreedhara Menon, p. 55.

5. Malabar Manual by William Logan, p. 455.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tipu Sultan</span> Ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore from 1782 to 1799

Tipu Sultan, also known as the Tiger of Mysore, was the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore based in South India. He was a pioneer of rocket artillery. He introduced a number of administrative innovations during his rule, including a new coinage system and calendar, and a new land revenue system, which initiated the growth of the Mysore silk industry. He expanded the iron-cased Mysorean rockets and commissioned the military manual Fathul Mujahidin. He deployed the rockets against advances of British forces and their allies during the Anglo-Mysore Wars, including the Battle of Pollilur and Siege of Srirangapatna.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Travancore</span> Kingdom in southern India from 1729 to 1949

The Kingdom of Travancore (/ˈtrævənkɔːr/), also known as the Kingdom of Thiruvithamkoor, was an Indian kingdom from c. 1729 until 1949. It was ruled by the Travancore Royal Family from Padmanabhapuram, and later Thiruvananthapuram. At its zenith, the kingdom covered most of the south of modern-day Kerala, and the southernmost part of modern-day Tamil Nadu with the Thachudaya Kaimal's enclave of Irinjalakuda Koodalmanikyam temple in the neighbouring Kingdom of Cochin. However Tangasseri area of Kollam city and Anchuthengu near Attingal in Thiruvananthapuram district, were British colonies and were part of the Malabar District until 30 June 1927, and Tirunelveli district from 1 July 1927 onwards. Travancore merged with the erstwhile princely state of Cochin to form Travancore-Cochin in 1950. The five Tamil-majority Taluks of Vilavancode, Kalkulam, Thovalai, Agastheeswaram, and Sengottai were transferred from Travancore-Cochin to Madras State in 1956. The Malayalam-speaking regions of Travancore-Cochin merged with the Malabar District and the Kasaragod taluk of the South Canara district in Madras State to form the modern Malayalam-state of Kerala on 1 November 1956, according to the States Reorganisation Act, 1956 passed by the Government of India.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Third Anglo-Mysore War</span> Conflict between the Kingdom of Mysore and the English East India Company and its allies

The Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–1792) was a conflict in South India between the Kingdom of Mysore and the British East India Company, the Kingdom of Travancore, the Maratha Empire, and the Nizam of Hyderabad. It was the third of four Anglo-Mysore Wars.

Karukutty is a village panchayat in Aluva Taluk, Ernakulam district of Kerala, India. Classified as a Grade A panchayat, Karukutty comprises 17 wards and falls under Angamaly block panchayat in Aluva taluk. It is part of Angamaly Assembly constituency and Chalakudy Parliament constituency.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Colachel</span> 1741 battle of the Travancore-Dutch War

The Battle of Colachel was fought on 10 August 1741 [O.S. 31 July 1741] between the Indian kingdom of Travancore and the Dutch East India Company. During the Travancore-Dutch War, King Marthanda Varma's (1729–1758) forces defeated the Dutch East India Company's forces led by Admiral Eustachius De Lannoy on 10 August 1741. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dharma Raja</span> Maharaja of Travancore from 1758–1798

Dharma RajaKarthika Thirunal Rama Varma was the Maharajah of Travancore from 1758 until his death in 1798. He succeeded his uncle Marthanda Varma, who is credited with the title of "maker of modern Travancore". During his reign Dharma Raja not only retained all the territories his predecessor had gained but administered the kingdom with success. He was addressed as Dharma Raja on account of his strict adherence to Dharma Sastra, the Hindu principles of justice by providing asylum to thousands of Hindus and Christians fleeing Malabar during the Mysorean conquest of Malabar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Raja Kesavadas</span> 11th Diwan of Travancore

Kunnathur Kesavan Raman Pillai, also known as Raja Kesavadas was the Dewan of Travancore during the reign of Dharma Raja Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma. He is well known for his military tactics and administrative acumen. He was the mastermind in developing the Alappuzha town.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eustachius De Lannoy</span> Military commander of the Travancore Army

Eustachius Benedictus de Lannoy was a skilled military strategist and commander of the Travancore Army, under Maharaja Marthanda Varma.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fortaleza da São Tomé</span> Fort in Kottappuram, Kodungallur, Kerala, India

The Fortaleza da São Tomé, also known as Cranganore Fort or Kottapuram Fort, is situated in Kodungallur of Thrissur District in Kerala, India. It was of 18 feet in thickness and was made of laterite. The stone fort was built by the Portuguese in 1523 and was named after Thomas the Apostle. The fort was enlarged in 1565 and passed into the hands of the Dutch in 1663, who destroyed the fort.

Thengana is a town in the Kottayam district Kerala state in India and is 5 Kilometers away from Changanassery .It is famous for lord Ashik thengana who was prime member in tipu sultan battalion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">North Malabar</span> Geographical / Historical Area in India

North Malabar refers to the geographic area of southwest India covering the state of Kerala's present day Kasaragod, Kannur, and Wayanad districts, and the taluks of Vatakara, Koyilandy in the Kozhikode District of Kerala and the entire Mahé Sub-Division of the Union Territory of Puducherry. Traditionally North Malabar is defined as the northern portion of erstwhile Malabar District which lies between Chandragiri River and Korapuzha River. The region between Netravathi River and Chandragiri River, which included the portions between Mangalore and Kasaragod, are also often included in the term North Malabar, as the Kumbla dynasty in the southernmost region of Tulu Nadu, had a mixed lineage of Malayali Nairs and Tuluva Brahmins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kiryathil Nair</span> Sub-caste

Kiryathil Nair or Kiriyath Nair is a martial nobility caste belonging to the Kshatriya varṇa, which forms one of the highest-ranking subcastes of the Nair community along with the Samantha Kshatriyas with whom they share a close history. They constituted the ruling elites (Naduvazhi) and feudal aristocrats (Jenmimar) in the regions of Malabar and Cochin in present-day Kerala, India, and have traditionally lived in ancestral homes known as Tharavads. As the pinnacle of the Nair hierarchy, the Samanthan and Kiryathil Nairs were second only to the Namboodiri Brahmins in the social status system of Kerala, and outranked even the priestly Ambalavasis.

The Captivity of Kodavas (Coorgis) at Seringapatam was the period of capture, deportation, and imprisonment of Kodava Takk speaking Coorgis who rebelled against Tippu Sultan, the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore, they were caught during a number of attempts to suppress their rebellion in the 1780s.

The Captivity of Nairs at Seringapatam was imposed on the Nairs of Malabar by Tipu Sultan, the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore from 1786 to 1799. They were subjected to forcible conversions to Sunni Islam, the official religious sect sanctioned by the Ottoman Caliphate, whose approval and alliance was sought by Tippu Sultan. Those who refused conversions had to face many humiliations, hardships, torture, and even death. The Nairs were treated with extreme brutality due to their strong adherence to the Hindu faith and martial tradition. The captivity ended when Nair troops from Travancore defeated Tipu in the Third Anglo-Mysore War. It is estimated that out of the 30,000 Nairs put to captivity, only a few hundred returned to Malabar alive.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vaikom Padmanabha Pillai</span> Military officer of the Kingdom of Travancore

Vaikom Padmanabha Pillai (1767–1809) was a militia leader and military officer of the Kingdom of Travancore. In 1808 he led an uprising against British control in Travancore. He was captured in 1809 and hanged for his role in the rebellion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Nedumkotta</span>

The Battle of Nedumkotta took place between December 1789 and May 1790, and was a reason for the opening of hostilities in the Third Anglo-Mysore War. This battle was fought between Tipu Sultan of the Kingdom of Mysore and Dharma Raja, Maharaja of Travancore. Mysore army attacked the fortified line in Thrissur district at the Travancore border known as the Nedumkotta. The Mysore army was successfully repulsed by the Travancore army under the leadership of Raja Kesavadas, Dewan of Travancore.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mysorean invasion of Malabar</span>

The Mysorean invasion of Malabar was the military invasion of the Malabar region of Kerala, including the territories of the Zamorin of Calicut, by the then-de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore, Hyder Ali. After the invasion, the Kingdom of Cochin to the south of Malabar became a tributary state of Mysore.

Ravi Varma Raja (1745–1793) was a Samantan Nair warrior prince of the Royal House of Zamorins from Calicut who fought a two-decade long revolt against the Mysore Sultanate under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan between 1766–1768 and 1774–1791, and later the British East India Company in 1793.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Calicut (kingdom)</span> A kingdom once stood in the present-day Kerala

The Kozhikode, also known as Calicut, was the kingdom of the Zamorin of Calicut, in the present-day Indian state of Kerala. Present-day Kozhikode is the second largest city in Kerala, as well as the headquarters of Kozhikode district.

Malappuram is one of the 14 districts in the South Indian state of Kerala. The district has a unique and eventful history starting from pre-historic times. During the early medieval period, the district was the home to two of the four major kingdoms that ruled Kerala. Perumpadappu was the original hometown of the Kingdom of Cochin, which is also known as Perumbadappu Swaroopam, and Nediyiruppu was the original hometown of the Zamorin of Calicut, which is also known as Nediyiruppu Swaroopam. Besides, the original headquarters of the Palakkad Rajas were also at Athavanad in the district.

References

  1. Praxy Fernandes, Storm Over Seringapatam, Bombay, 1969, p.117
  2. The ditch was 16 feet wide and 20 feet deep (vide Nagam Aiya, V., The Travancore State Manual, Vol.I).
  3. Panikkar, K. N.; Fernandes, Praxy (August 1991). "Men of Valour and Vision". Social Scientist. 19 (8/9): 109. doi:10.2307/3517708. ISSN   0970-0293. JSTOR   3517708.
  4. Praxy Fernandes, Storm Over Seringapatam, Bombay, 1969, p.117
  5. "View file". Nationaal Archief. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
  6. Ibrahim Kunju, A.P., Mysore-Kerala Relations in the 18th Century, Trivandrum, 1784, p.34.
  7. Praxy Fernandes, op.cit., p.117.
  8. Mil Cons., Vol.CXXXIII-A, pp.8-9
  9. Sobannan, B., Ramavarma of Travancore, Trivandrum, 1980, pp.36-37
  10. Military Country Correspondents (Tamil Archives), Vol.XXXVII, pp.46-47.
  11. Nagam Aiya, V., The Travancore State Manual, Vol.I, Trivandrum, 1906, p.157.
  12. ഡോ: കെ.കെ.എൻ., കുറുപ്പ്= (2007). നവാബ് ടിപ്പു സുൽത്താൻ - ഒരു പഠനം. കോഴിക്കോട്: മാതൃഭൂമി പബ്ലീഷേസ്. ISBN   978-81-8264-546-2.
  13. Wilks, Mark, Historical Sketches of South India, Vol.III, Trivandrum, 1899, p.114.
  14. Ibrahim Kunju, A.P., Mysore-Kerala Relations in the 18th Century, Trivandrum, 1784, p.34.
  15. Mil.Con.Gra., Vol.39, 1790, Letter from Raja of Travancore to John Holland, 1 January 1790.
  16. 7 Abraham, M.V., A Concise History of Travancore, Tiruvala, 1942, p.25.
  17. 36 Correspondence of Marquis of Cornwallis, Vol.II, p.52. 96
  18. Gleig's Life of Sir Thomas Munro, Vol.I, p.93.
  19. "TIPU SULTAN: AS KNOWN IN KERALA". voiceofdharma.org. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
  20. Valath,V.V.K mentions in a local Daily, Mathrubhumi on 1978 July 6 about a cave being found when a village road was being excavated near krishnankotta and subsequently being destroyed. This he mentions was part of the structure.
  21. "NEDUMKOTTA: TRAVANCORE DEFENCE FORTIFICATION". www.voiceofdharma.com. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
  22. "The Tiger and the Syrian Christians: Tipu Sultan's 'Padayottam'". Nasranis. 6 May 2007. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
  23. Place histories of Kerala - Thrissur District