Out of danger species

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An out-of-danger species is an animal or plant species formerly categorized as Rare, Vulnerable, or Endangered that has since been removed from these lists because the species' survival has been relatively secured, [1] e.g. Ginkgo biloba . Often known as a delisted species, these animals have been moved out of the Rare, Vulnerable, or Endangered categories through conservation efforts and government policymaking to ensure their survival and population growth. [2] The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) established its list of endangered species in 1964, subsequently becoming a global authority on wildlife conservation. [3] The following year, the United States created the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to act as a federal authority on endangered species. [4] Currently, both international and domestic organizations implement recovery efforts and track species' population growth, delisting when necessary. [5] [6] Removing a species from the endangered species list is generally a slow process; most organizations and governments require long periods of observation both before and after delisting. [7] There have been numerous efforts to delist endangered species, with both international and country-wide recovery plans being regularly implemented. [8] These programs have led to the recovery of dozens of species, but their overall effectiveness remains contested. [9] [10]

Contents

History

The first wildlife conservation law passed in the United States was the Lacey Act of 1900, which required the secretary of agriculture to "preserve, introduce, distribute, and restore" wild and game birds. In the 1960s, the Department of Interior formed a Committee on Rare and Endangered Wildlife Species to identify species in danger of extinction. The first official document listing the species that the federal government declared in danger of extinction was published as the 'Redbook on Rare and Endangered Fish and Wildlife of the United States in 1964. [11] The Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife (renamed U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1974) was created in 1965 by The Fish and Wildlife Act and is the authority on the official federal list of endangered species today. [12] The first species to be delisted from the Endangered Species list due to recovery (as opposed to extinction or listing error) was the Brown Pelican in 1985. [4] Beyond domestic classifications within the U.S., international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have developed separate classification and prevention systems. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), which established its list of endangered species in 1964, is the global authority on species conservation and recovery. [3] Many nations have implemented laws that protect endangered species by, for example, banning hunting or creating protected areas. More extensive measures such as captive breeding and habitat restoration have also been undertaken, especially by nations that rely on revenue from tourism. [8]

Policy

Global

IUCN classification of species by level of endangerment UCNI unassessed label per FileStatus iucn3 1 blank.jpg
IUCN classification of species by level of endangerment

The IUCN Red List is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the conservation status of biological species. It serves as a global indicator for biodiversity and provides information about population size, habitat, and threats to the population that help inform conservation decisions. Species are reassessed each time a new version of the list is published, and some are downlisted or delisted if certain criteria are met. Species are examined for a multitude of factors, including if their main threats remain prevalent and whether conservation measures have engendered enough of an improvement to warrant a change in threat category or complete removal from the list. The IUCN relies on global scientific research to refine its assessments and accurately assess whether a species is improving or deteriorating. [5]

Country-wide efforts take on many forms, as each nation develops different strategies to shorten the endangered species list. Some, like Australia and the United States, use recovery plans enacted by the national government to guide conservation, while others rely more heavily on captive breeding programs. [13] [14] The effectiveness of these efforts also differ, with ninety percent of North/Central American countries and seventy percent of African countries being classified as above-average performers on a Megafauna Conservation Index (MCI) developed by researchers in Global Ecology and Conservation. Conversely, approximately twenty-five percent of Asian countries and twenty percent of European countries were found to be under-performers; some argue that these disparities are due to disparate levels of reliance on wildlife tourism. [8]

By Country

United States

Currently, the delisting of out-of-danger species in the United States is governed by the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA). The law was enacted to prevent endangered species from becoming extinct and is jointly administered by the U.S Department of the Interior, the U.S Department of Commerce, and the U.S Department of Agriculture. Federal policy differentiates between an "endangered species," which is at risk of extinction throughout most or all of its population, and a "threatened species," a less severe classification referring to a species that is likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future. [6] The delisting of a species, which can be formally defined as the removal of species from the Federal Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants, is governed by section 4 of the ESA. The process occurs when a species is determined to no longer be at risk; this assessment is based on factors such as population size, habitat quality, and elimination of threats. After being delisted, the species must be monitored for at least five years to ensure that recovery remains stable. There is a similar process governed by the ESA known as downlisting. While it is close to delisting, it deals with the downgrade of a species from endangered to threatened as opposed to their complete removal from the list. [2]

Recovery efforts and challenges

In the United States, recovery is defined as the process of restoring endangered and threatened species to the point where they no longer require the safeguards of the ESA. Recovery plans are developed by departments like National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) [15] and the U.S Fish and Wildlife Services [16] to outline a strategy to restore self-sufficient wild populations of engendered species. They are non-regulatory documents developed in conjunction with interested parties in federal, state, local, and tribal governments; successful implementation often results in downlisting or delisting, and the removal of ESA protections. [15] Species are tracked over time while these agencies implement individual recovery actions. [16] For example, ten federal agencies formed the Columbia River Basin Federal Caucus to promote recovery of native fish and wildlife listed under the Endangered Species Act in the Columbia River Basin, including the Middle Columbia River Steelhead. [17]

In July 2021, the IUCN implemented a new metric for assessing species recovery. Known as the "green status," it ranges from 0 to 100 and is calculated using the population of a species prior to human interference. It also tracks the impact of previous conservation efforts; the hypothetical effect of stopping current conservation efforts; as well as future potential species recovery. [18]

Despite these efforts, listings of endangered species tend to outpace delistings. [19] Some hold the view that most species can expect an extended, if not permanent residence on the endangered species list. They argue that a lack of protections against important causes of species decline results in most species remaining on the list forever, and warn that the detriments of a mistaken delisting generally outweigh those of extended retention on the protected list. The slow speed of delisting is not always been seen as negative, and has been cited as demonstrative of the importance of the ESA. [19] Occasionally, advocacy groups have filed lawsuits to challenge the Fish and Wildlife Service's delisting of a species, as was the case with both Yellowstone grizzly bear and Sonoran Desert bald eagle. Controversy is not uncommon in these decisions, as some worry about the consequences engendered by a species' loss of ESA protections. [10] Critics of the ESA argue that recovery efforts focus on charismatic species to the detriment of others, especially plants. Proposed improvements to current recovery policy come in many forms, including strengthening partnerships with states and corporations, a higher level of species monitoring, and the use of climate-smart conservation strategies. [20]

DDT ban

One event that contributed to the recovery efforts of several bird species in the United States was the banning of the chemical commonly known as DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane). This chemical became a well-known synthetic pesticide after its use during WWII to prevent insect-carried diseases from affecting American troops. After the war, DDT became a popular agricultural insecticide.[ citation needed ] DDT's harmful environmental effects largely affected bird populations, as the chemical caused the bird's eggshells to become dangerously brittle and reduced the reproductive abilities of bird populations. [21] In 1962, American biologist Rachel Carson published the book Silent Spring , which raised public awareness about the harmful effects of DDT and questioned the widespread release of the chemical into the environment. On July 14, 1972, the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency canceled nearly all remaining federal registrations of DDT products.[ citation needed ] After the federal ban of DDT, several bird populations that had become endangered due to the widespread use of the chemical were able to recover and were removed from the Endangered Species list. These populations include the Bald Eagle, Peregrine Falcon, Osprey, and Brown Pelican. [22]

Examples

American alligator

American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), Florida, United States Alligator mississippiensis (American alligator).jpg
American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), Florida, United States

The American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) is a member of the order Crocodilia. They are apex predators who help to control the number of rodents and other animals that might otherwise overtax marshland vegetation. The species saw a dramatic population decline in the mid-20th century. [23] When its population reached an all-time low in 1967, it was officially recognized as an endangered species. The U.S. government, in conjunction with the southern states, cracked down on the hunting of alligators and heavily monitored population growth. They were officially delisted in 1987 after U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services announced they had made a full recovery. [9] Moreover, the IUCN now considers them of lowest risk/least concern and has commented on their positive response to intervention and rapid recovery. Sustainable management programs have operated in Louisiana, Florida, Texas, and other southeastern states for years. The prevalence and availability of healthy populations has led to numerous investigations of alligator biology. [24] [23]

Arabian oryx

Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx), Dubai Desert Conservation Area, UAE Arabian oryx (oryx leucoryx).jpg
Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx), Dubai Desert Conservation Area, UAE

The Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) is a species of antelope native to the Arabian Peninsula and is locally referred to as Al Maha. Despite the last wild Oryx being shot in 1972, captive breeding and subsequent reintroduction efforts downlisted the species from endangered to vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, a three-category improvement. [13] This reintroduction process was heavily supported by the local Harasis bedu people that established safe grazing areas for the reintroduced herds. The reintroduction process faced many challenges and setbacks due to poachers and an oil pipeline being built on Oman's Arabian Oryx Sanctuary in 2007. [25] However, as of 2011, the peninsula hosted over 1,000 wild specimens, with another 7,000 living in captivity. [9] The Arabian Oryx's shift from endangered to vulnerable in 2011 was the first time the IUCN had reclassified a species as vulnerable after it had been extinct in the wild. [25] [13]

Bald eagle

Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) Bald Eagle - "Helga" - Haliaeetus leucocephalus2.jpg
Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)

The bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) is a large, carnivorous bird of prey that can often be found near bodies of water. [26] The population saw a decrease in the mid-20th century as they lost habitat due to urbanization, hunting, and the widespread use of DDT. People at that time believed that the eagles were responsible for the abduction of smaller cattle, and in some cases, attacking children. However, this was disproven, and in 1978, the Endangered Species Technical Bulletin attributed most eagle deaths to preventative killings caused by these beliefs. [27] Along with direct attacks on the species, the pesticide DDT played a key role in the population diminishing through biomagnification. DDT did not affect grown adult eagles, but it did alter their calcium metabolism to make them either sterile or incapable of producing healthy eggs. Researchers found that eggs that were produced were often too brittle to withstand the weight of a brooding adult eagle. Subsequently, regulations and protections have been implemented, including permit requirements to hunt eagles. The U.S. government removed the species from its endangered species list in 1995, and it was removed from the endangered and threatened category in 2007. While they are out of danger, the bald eagle is still under the protection of the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act and the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. [27] [28]

Gray wolf

Gray wolf (Canis lupus) Front view of a resting Canis lupus ssp.jpg
Gray wolf (Canis lupus)

The gray wolf (Canis lupus) is one of the most recent species to be categorized as out-of-danger in the U.S. The population of gray wolves declined in America through the 1960s as productivity in the agriculture industry increased and gray wolves were seen as threats to cattle. At its low in 1985, their population reached about 300 in total and their habitat was reduced to just northern Michigan and Minnesota, as well as Wisconsin. [29] Thanks to being put under the protection of the Endangered Species Act of 1973, conservationists were able to promote the species' safety and the population began to slowly rise and return to its normal numbers. [30] By 2020, the population in America reached over 6,000, and the wolves' geographic territory had expended, which exceeded the expectations of conservationists. The gray wolf has now been removed from the list of endangered and threatened species. Now that the numbers have returned to a sustainable state, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service will continue to monitor the species to ensure that both it and the cattle to which they are considered a danger remain safe. [29] [31]

Giant panda

Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), Shanghai, China Giant Panda Eating.jpg
Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), Shanghai, China

The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is native to south-central China. The species mainly reside in temperate forests high in the mountains and subsist almost entirely on bamboo. These bears must eat large quantities of bamboo every day and are excellent tree climbers, despite their size. [32] In the 1960s, the species experienced near extinction due to a diminishing habitat and a pelt that was considered valuable to humans, which led to widespread hunting and confinement. The wild population continued to decline until conservation groups and government agencies stepped in. Since then, the population has dramatically increased relative to its almost non-existence. In 2016, they were moved from the list of Endangered Species to Vulnerable Species according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). At their current rate of growth, they may soon exit that category as well. There are currently 67 panda reserves that protect 66% of wild pandas. [30] [32]

Ginkgo biloba

Maidenhair tree (Ginko biloba) Ginkgo biloba (Maidenhair Tree) (37535327584).jpg
Maidenhair tree (Ginko biloba)

Ginkgo biloba , commonly known as the maidenhair tree, is the last of the division Ginkgophyta and has fossils dating back to the Jurassic Age, making it one of the oldest living tree species in the world. [33] The rest of its division is believed to have gone extinct around the same time as the dinosaurs. Populations of this plant in the wild are still considered endangered by the IUCN. However, it is widely cultivated worldwide, especially in China and Japan where it is native and is popular for both medicinal uses as well as its use in culinary practices. In the medical world, it is believed to be helpful in treating Alzheimer's, dementia, and vertigo. Its fruit is often used in cooking and is considered a delicacy in China. [34] [35]

Potentilla robbinsiana

Robbins's cinquefoil (Potentilla robbinsiana) Raggfingerort-3872 - Flickr - Ragnhild & Neil Crawford.jpg
Robbins's cinquefoil (Potentilla robbinsiana)

The Potentilla robbinsiana or Robbins's cinquefoil is a dwarf alpine plant located in New Hampshire’s White Mountains and Franconia Ridge. [9] It is a small, yellow-flowered perennial member of the rose family. [36] After a large hiking trail was built through Monroe Flats—home to more than 95 percent of the world's Robbins' cinquefoil—a combination of harvesting and foot traffic pushed the species to the brink of extinction. After being placed on the endangered species list, the Monroe Flats trail was rerouted, and work began to germinate new satellite colonies of the species. These efforts caused the population to grow from 1,801 to 4,831 between 1973 and 2006, and the species was officially delisted in 2002. [37] New colonies are especially prevalent in the Mount Washington area, where the species survives best on rocky sites similar to its natural habitat. [38] [4]

See also

Related Research Articles

A threatened species is any species which is vulnerable to extinction in the near future. Species that are threatened are sometimes characterised by the population dynamics measure of critical depensation, a mathematical measure of biomass related to population growth rate. This quantitative metric is one method of evaluating the degree of endangerment without direct reference to human activity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endangered Species Act of 1973</span> United States law

The Endangered Species Act of 1973 is the primary law in the United States for protecting and conserving imperiled species. Designed to protect critically imperiled species from extinction as a "consequence of economic growth and development untempered by adequate concern and conservation", the ESA was signed into law by President Richard Nixon on December 28, 1973. The Supreme Court of the United States described it as "the most comprehensive legislation for the preservation of endangered species enacted by any nation". The purposes of the ESA are two-fold: to prevent extinction and to recover species to the point where the law's protections are not needed. It therefore "protect[s] species and the ecosystems upon which they depend" through different mechanisms. For example, section 4 requires the agencies overseeing the Act to designate imperiled species as threatened or endangered. Section 9 prohibits unlawful 'take,' of such species, which means to "harass, harm, hunt..." Section 7 directs federal agencies to use their authorities to help conserve listed species. The Act also serves as the enacting legislation to carry out the provisions outlined in The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Key deer</span> Subspecies of deer endemic to the Florida Keys

The Key deer is an endangered subspecies of the white-tailed deer that lives only in the Florida Keys. It is the smallest extant North American deer species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Guam flying fox</span> Extinct species of bat

The Guam flying fox, also known as the little Marianas fruit bat, is an extinct species of small megabat endemic to Guam in the Marianas Islands in Micronesia that was confirmed extinct due to hunting or habitat changes. It was first recorded in 1931 and was observed roosting with the larger and much more common Mariana fruit bat. The last specimen was a female found roosting at Tarague cliff in March 1967, but it escaped capture. An unconfirmed sighting took place sometime during the 1970s, and no other individuals have been sighted since then.

<i>Nicrophorus americanus</i> Species of beetle

Nicrophorus americanus, also known as the American burying beetle or giant carrion beetle, is a critically endangered species of beetle endemic to North America. It belongs to the order Coleoptera and the family Silphidae. The carrion beetle in North America is carnivorous, feeds on carrion and requires carrion to breed. It is also a member of one of the few genera of beetle to exhibit parental care. The decline of the American burying beetle has been attributed to habitat loss, alteration, and degradation, and they now occur in less than 10% of their historic range.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-capped vireo</span> Species of bird

The black-capped vireo is a small bird native to the United States and Mexico. It was listed as an endangered species in the United States in 1987. It is the only Vireo that is sexually dichromatic. Recovery of the species' population contributed to its delisting in 2018. The IUCN lists the species as "near threatened."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene</span> Chemical compound

Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) is a chemical compound formed by the loss of hydrogen chloride (dehydrohalogenation) from DDT, of which it is one of the more common breakdown products. Due to DDT's massive prevalence in society and agriculture during the mid 20th century, DDT and DDE are still widely seen in animal tissue samples. DDE is particularly dangerous because it is fat-soluble like other organochlorines; thus, it is rarely excreted from the body, and concentrations tend to increase throughout life. The major exception is the excretion of DDE in breast milk, which transfers a substantial portion of the mother's DDE burden to the young animal or child. Along with accumulation over an organism's lifetime, this stability leads to bioaccumulation in the environment, which amplifies DDE's negative effects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alabama cavefish</span> Species of fish

The Alabama cavefish is a critically endangered species of amblyopsid cavefish found only in underground pools in Key Cave, located in northwestern Alabama, United States in the Key Cave National Wildlife Refuge. It was discovered underneath a colony of gray bats in 1967 by researchers Robert A. Kuehne and John E. Cooper and scientifically described in 1974.

An endangered species recovery plan, also known as a species recovery plan, species action plan, species conservation action, or simply recovery plan, is a document describing the current status, threats and intended methods for increasing rare and endangered species population sizes. Recovery plans act as a foundation from which to build a conservation effort to preserve animals which are under threat of extinction. More than 320 species have died out and the world is continuing a rate of 1 species becoming extinct every two years. Climate change is also linked to several issues relating to extinct species and animals' quality of life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kākāwahie</span> Extinct species of bird

The kākāwahie or Molokaʻi creeper is an extinct species of Hawaiian honeycreeper. It was found on the Hawaiian island of Molokaʻi in Hawaii.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hawaiian coot</span> Species of bird

The Hawaiian coot, also known as the ʻ'alae ke'oke'o in Hawaiian, is a bird in the rail family, Rallidae, that is endemic to Hawaiʻi. In Hawaiian, ʻalae is a noun and means mud hen. Kea or its synonym keo is an adjective for white. It is similar to the American coot at 33–40.6 cm (13–16 in) in length and weighing around 700 g. It has black plumage and a prominent white frontal shield. Its natural habitats are freshwater lakes, freshwater marshes, coastal saline lagoons, and water storage areas. The bird was federally listed in October 1970 as an endangered species and is considered both endemic and endangered by the state of Hawaii. It is threatened by habitat loss and introduced predators such as the small Asian mongoose. The Makalawena Marsh on the Big Island of Hawaiʻi has been listed as a National Natural Landmark to preserve one of its last nesting areas.

Pleurobema marshalli, the flat pigtoe or Marshall's mussel, was a species of freshwater mussel in the family Unionidae, the river mussels. It was native to Alabama and Mississippi, but it has not been seen since 1980. Though it is still listed as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List and as an endangered species on the US Endangered Species List, it is likely extinct.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maui ʻakepa</span> Species of bird

The Maui ʻakepa is a species of ʻakepa native to Maui in the Hawaiian Islands, and which was common throughout the island. Introduced mosquitoes and other animals to Maui contributed to the declining population, and the bird is considered Critically Endangered by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The latest reported sighting of this bird was in 1988, and in 2021 the United States Fish and Wildlife Service proposed declaring it extinct. The species was delisted from the Endangered Species Act on October 16, 2023 citing extinction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maui nukupuʻu</span> Species of bird

The Maui nukupuʻu is a species of nukupuʻu Hawaiian honeycreeper that was endemic to the island of Maui in the Hawaiian Islands. The small, five-inch-long bird lived only in eastern Maui, where it was dependent on high-elevation mesic and wet forests of ʻōhiʻa lehua and koa. These two species of trees attract insects, causing the Maui nukupuʻu to have a higher chance of finding a meal near these trees. It was last sighted in the late 1990's, and is most likely extinct.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act</span> United States federal statute

The Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act is a United States federal statute that protects two species of eagle. The bald eagle was chosen as a national emblem of the United States by the Continental Congress of 1782 and was given legal protection by the Bald Eagle Protection Act of 1940. This act was expanded to include the golden eagle in 1962. Since the original Act, the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act has been amended several times. It currently prohibits anyone, without a permit issued by the Secretary of the Interior, from "taking" bald eagles. Taking is described to include their parts, nests, or eggs, molesting or disturbing the birds. The Act provides criminal penalties for persons who "take, possess, sell, purchase, barter, offer to sell, purchase or barter, transport, export or import, at any time or any manner, any bald eagle ... [or any golden eagle], alive or dead, or any part, nest, or egg thereof."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endangered species</span> Species of organisms facing a very high risk of extinction

An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching, invasive species, and climate change. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List lists the global conservation status of many species, and various other agencies assess the status of species within particular areas. Many nations have laws that protect conservation-reliant species which, for example, forbid hunting, restrict land development, or create protected areas. Some endangered species are the target of extensive conservation efforts such as captive breeding and habitat restoration.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Manatee conservation</span> Organizations and work supporting manatee welfare

Manatees are large marine mammals that inhabit slow rivers, canals, saltwater bays, estuaries, and coastal areas. They are a migratory species, inhabiting the Florida waters during the winter and moving as far north as Virginia and into the Chesapeake Bay, sometimes seen as far north as Baltimore, Maryland and as far west as Texas in the warmer summer months. Manatees are calm herbivores that spend most of their time eating, sleeping, and traveling. They have a lifespan of about 60 years with no known natural enemies. Some of their deaths are the result of human activity. In the past, manatees were exploited for their meat, fat, and hides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conservation-reliant species</span>

Conservation-reliant species are animal or plant species that require continuing species-specific wildlife management intervention such as predator control, habitat management and parasite control to survive, even when a self-sustainable recovery in population is achieved.

Ventana Wildlife Society (VWS) is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization founded in 1977 by a group of private citizens to restore endangered species native to central California. VWS has three full-time staff biologists, together with seasonal interns, monitoring, tracking and researching endangered species, songbirds and butterflies. Educational science programs for school children bring youth in touch with nature in their own neighborhoods, or through summer science camps.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coastal California gnatcatcher</span> Subspecies of bird

The coastal California gnatcatcher is a small non-migratory songbird. The coastal California gnatcatcher is the northernmost subspecies of the California gnatcatcher. It lives in and around coastal sage scrub. This songbird has black, gray, and white feathers, and eats mainly insects. It often lives alone but joins with other birds in winter groups. Its call sounds like a kitten meowing, a rising and falling zeeeeer, zeeeeer.

References

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  34. ↑ "Maidenhair tree | Kew". www.kew.org. Retrieved 2020-11-11.
  35. ↑ "Ginkgo". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2020-12-03.
  36. ↑ "Dwarf cinquefoil". www.biologicaldiversity.org. Retrieved 2021-10-15.
  37. ↑ "Robbins Cinquefoil Recovery". www.fs.fed.us. Retrieved 2021-10-10.
  38. ↑ Graber, Raymond E. (1980). "The life history and ecology of Potentilla robbinsiana". Rhodora. 82 (829): 131–140. JSTOR   23311896.
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