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Paleoceanography is the study of the history of the oceans in the geologic past with regard to circulation, chemistry, biology, geology and patterns of sedimentation and biological productivity. Paleoceanographic studies using environment models and different proxies enable the scientific community to assess the role of the oceanic processes in the global climate by the re-construction of past climate at various intervals. Paleoceanographic research is also intimately tied to paleoclimatology.
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Paleoceanography makes use of so-called proxy methods as a way to infer information about the past state and evolution of the world's oceans. Several geochemical proxy tools include long-chain organic molecules (e.g. alkenones), stable and radioactive isotopes, and trace metals. [1] Additionally, sediment cores rich with fossils and shells (tests) can also be useful; the field of paleoceanography is closely related to sedimentology and paleontology.
Sea-surface temperature (SST) records can be extracted from deep-sea sediment cores using oxygen isotope ratios and the ratio of magnesium to calcium (Mg/Ca) in shell secretions from plankton, from long-chain organic molecules such as alkenone, from tropical corals near the sea surface, and from mollusk shells. [2]
Oxygen isotope ratios (δ18O) are useful in reconstructing SST because of the influence temperature has on the isotope ratio. Plankton take up oxygen in building their shells and will be less enriched in their δ18O when formed in warmer waters, provided they are in thermodynamic equilibrium with the seawater. [3] When these shells precipitate, they sink and form sediments on the ocean floor whose δ18O can be used to infer past SSTs. [4] Oxygen isotope ratios are not perfect proxies, however. The volume of ice trapped in continental ice sheets can have an impact of the δ18O. Freshwater characterized by lower values of δ18O becomes trapped in the continental ice sheets, so that during glacial periods seawater δ18O is elevated and calcite shells formed during these times will have a larger δ18O value. [5] [6]
The substitution of magnesium in place of calcium in CaCO3 shells can be used as a proxy for the SST in which the shells formed. Mg/Ca ratios have several other influencing factors other than temperature, such as vital effects, shell-cleaning, and postmortem and post-depositional dissolution effects, to name a few. [2] Other influences aside, Mg/Ca ratios have successfully quantified the tropical cooling that occurred during the last glacial period. [7]
Alkenones are long-chain, complex organic molecules produced by photosynthetic algae. They are temperature sensitive and can be extracted from marine sediments. Use of alkenones represents a more direct relationship between SST and algae and does not rely on knowing biotic and physical-chemical thermodynamic relationships needed in CaCO3 studies. [8] Another advantage of using alkenones is that they are a product of photosynthesis, necessitating formation in the sunlight of the upper surface layers. As such, it better records near-surface SST. [2]
The most commonly used proxy to infer deep-sea temperature history are the Mg/Ca ratios in benthic foraminifera and ostracodes. The temperatures inferred from the Mg/Ca ratios have confirmed an up to 3 °C cooling of the deep ocean during the late Pleistocene glacial periods. [2] One notable study is that by Lear et al. [2002] who worked to calibrate bottom water temperature to Mg/Ca ratios in 9 locations covering a variety of depths from up to six different benthic foraminifera (depending on location). [9] The authors found an equation calibrating bottom water temperature of Mg/Ca ratios that takes on an exponential form:
where Mg/Ca is the Mg/Ca ratio found in the benthic foraminifera and BWT is the bottom water temperature. [10]
Sediment records can tell us a great deal about our past and help make inferences towards the future. Though this area of Paleoceanography is nothing new with some research going back to the 1930s and earlier. [11] Modern time scale reconstructive research has advanced using sediment core-scanning methods. These methods have enabled research similar to that conducted with ice core records in Antarctica. [12] These records can inform on the relative abundance of organisms present at a given time using paleoproductivity methods such as measuring the total diatom abundance. [13] Records can also inform on historic weather patterns and ocean circulation such as Deschamps et al. described with their research into sediment records from the Chukchi-Alaskan and Canadian Beaufort Margins. [14]
Salinity is a more challenging quantity to infer from paleorecords. Deuterium excess in core records can provide a better inference of sea-surface salinity than oxygen isotopes, and certain species, such as diatoms, can provide a semiquantitative salinity record due to the relative abundances of diatoms that are limited to certain salinity regimes. [15] There have been changes to global water cycle and the salinity balance of the oceans with the North Atlantic and becoming more saline and the sub-tropical Indian and pacific oceans becoming less so. [16] [17] With changes to the water cycle, there have also been variations with the vertical distribution of salt and haloclines. [18] Large incursions of freshwater and changing salinity can also contribute to a reduction in sea ice extent. [19]
Several proxy methods have been used to infer past ocean circulation and changes to it. They include carbon isotope ratios, cadmium/calcium (Cd/Ca) ratios, protactinium/thorium isotopes (231Pa and 230Th), radiocarbon activity (δ14C), neodymium isotopes (143Nd and 144Nd), and sortable silt (fraction of deep-sea sediment between 10 and 63 μm). [2] Carbon isotope and cadmium/calcium ratio proxies are used because variability in their ratios is due partly to changes in bottom-water chemistry, which is in turn related the source of deep-water formation. [20] [21] These ratios, however, are influenced by biological, ecological, and geochemical processes which complicate circulation inferences.
All proxies included are useful in inferring the behavior of the meridional overturning circulation. [2] For example, McManus et al. [2004] used protactinium/thorium isotopes (231Pa and 230Th) to show that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation had been nearly (or completely) shut off during the last glacial period. [22] 231Pa and 230Th are both formed from the radioactive decay of dissolved uranium in seawater, with 231Pa able to remain supported in the water column longer than 230Th: 231Pa has a residence time ~100–200 years while 230Th has one ~20–40 years. [22] In today's Atlantic Ocean and current overturning circulation, 230Th transport to the Southern Ocean is minimal due to its short residence time, and 231Pa transport is high. This results in relatively low 231Pa / 230Th ratios found by McManus et al. [2004] in a core at 33N 57W, and a depth of 4.5 km. When the overturning circulation shuts down (as hypothesized) during glacial periods, the 231Pa / 230Th ratio becomes elevated due to the lack of removal of 231Pa to the Southern Ocean. McManus et al. [2004] also note a small raise in the 231Pa / 230Th ratio during the Younger Dryas event, another period in climate history thought to have experienced a weakening overturning circulation. [22]
Boron isotope ratios (δ11B) can be used to infer both recent as well as millennial time scale changes in the acidity, pH, and alkalinity of the ocean, which is mainly forced by atmospheric CO2 concentrations and bicarbonate ion concentration in the ocean. δ11B has been identified in corals from the southwestern Pacific to vary with ocean pH, and shows that climate variabilities such as the Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO) can modulate the impact of ocean acidification due to rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations. [23] Another application of δ11B in plankton shells can be used as an indirect proxy for atmospheric CO2 concentrations over the past several million years. [24]
The photic zone, euphotic zone, epipelagic zone, or sunlight zone is the uppermost layer of a body of water that receives sunlight, allowing phytoplankton to perform photosynthesis. It undergoes a series of physical, chemical, and biological processes that supply nutrients into the upper water column. The photic zone is home to the majority of aquatic life due to the activity of the phytoplankton. The thicknesses of the photic and euphotic zones vary with the intensity of sunlight as a function of season and latitude and with the degree of water turbidity. The bottommost, or aphotic, zone is the region of perpetual darkness that lies beneath the photic zone and includes most of the ocean waters.
Paleoclimatology is the scientific study of climates predating the invention of meteorological instruments, when no direct measurement data were available. As instrumental records only span a tiny part of Earth's history, the reconstruction of ancient climate is important to understand natural variation and the evolution of the current climate.
In the study of past climates ("paleoclimatology"), climate proxies are preserved physical characteristics of the past that stand in for direct meteorological measurements and enable scientists to reconstruct the climatic conditions over a longer fraction of the Earth's history. Reliable global records of climate only began in the 1880s, and proxies provide the only means for scientists to determine climatic patterns before record-keeping began.
Isotope geochemistry is an aspect of geology based upon the study of natural variations in the relative abundances of isotopes of various elements. Variations in isotopic abundance are measured by isotope-ratio mass spectrometry, and can reveal information about the ages and origins of rock, air or water bodies, or processes of mixing between them.
The geologic temperature record are changes in Earth's environment as determined from geologic evidence on multi-million to billion (109) year time scales. The study of past temperatures provides an important paleoenvironmental insight because it is a component of the climate and oceanography of the time.
A Heinrich event is a natural phenomenon in which large groups of icebergs break off from the Laurentide Ice Sheet and traverse the Hudson Strait into the North Atlantic. First described by marine geologist Hartmut Heinrich, they occurred during five of the last seven glacial periods over the past 640,000 years. Heinrich events are particularly well documented for the last glacial period but notably absent from the penultimate glaciation. The icebergs contained rock mass that had been eroded by the glaciers, and as they melted, this material was dropped to the sea floor as ice rafted debris forming deposits called Heinrich layers.
TEX86 is an organic paleothermometer based upon the membrane lipids of mesophilic marine Nitrososphaerota (formerly "Thaumarchaeota", "Marine Group 1 Crenarchaeota").
A paleothermometer is a methodology that provides an estimate of the ambient temperature at the time of formation of a natural material. Most paleothermometers are based on empirically-calibrated proxy relationships, such as the tree ring or TEX86 methods. Isotope methods, such as the δ18O method or the clumped-isotope method, are able to provide, at least in theory, direct measurements of temperature.
Oxygen isotope ratio cycles are cyclical variations in the ratio of the abundance of oxygen with an atomic mass of 18 to the abundance of oxygen with an atomic mass of 16 present in some substances, such as polar ice or calcite in ocean core samples, measured with the isotope fractionation. The ratio is linked to ancient ocean temperature which in turn reflects ancient climate. Cycles in the ratio mirror climate changes in the geological history of Earth.
The Older Dryas was a stadial (cold) period between the Bølling and Allerød interstadials, about 14,000 years Before Present, towards the end of the Pleistocene. Its date range is not well defined, with estimates varying by 400 years, but its duration is agreed to have been around two centuries.
The environmental isotopes are a subset of isotopes, both stable and radioactive, which are the object of isotope geochemistry. They are primarily used as tracers to see how things move around within the ocean-atmosphere system, within terrestrial biomes, within the Earth's surface, and between these broad domains.
Paleolimnology is a scientific sub-discipline closely related to both limnology and paleoecology. Paleolimnological studies focus on reconstructing the past environments of inland waters using the geologic record, especially with regard to events such as climatic change, eutrophication, acidification, and internal ontogenic processes.
In geochemistry, paleoclimatology and paleoceanography δ18O or delta-O-18 is a measure of the deviation in ratio of stable isotopes oxygen-18 (18O) and oxygen-16 (16O). It is commonly used as a measure of the temperature of precipitation, as a measure of groundwater/mineral interactions, and as an indicator of processes that show isotopic fractionation, like methanogenesis. In paleosciences, 18O:16O data from corals, foraminifera and ice cores are used as a proxy for temperature.
Marine Isotope Stage 11 or MIS 11 is a Marine Isotope Stage in the geologic temperature record, covering the interglacial period between 424,000 and 374,000 years ago. It corresponds to the Hoxnian Stage in Britain.
The cool tropics paradox is the apparent difference between modeled estimates of tropical temperatures during warm, ice-free periods of the Cretaceous and Eocene, and the colder temperatures which proxies suggested were present. The long-standing paradox was resolved when novel proxy derived temperatures showed significantly warmer tropics during past greenhouse climates. The low-gradient problem, i.e. the very warm polar regions with respect to present day, is still an issue for state-of-the-art climate models.
Lorraine Lisiecki is an American paleoclimatologist. She is a professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of California, Santa Barbara. She has proposed a new analysis of the 100,000-year problem in the Milankovitch theory of climate change. She also created the analytical software behind the LR04, a "standard representation of the climate history of the last five million years".
Paleosalinity is the salinity of the global ocean or of an ocean basin at a point in geological history.
Vital effects are biological impacts on geochemical records. Many marine organisms, ranging from zooplankton to phytoplankton to reef builders, create shells or skeletons from chemical compounds dissolved in seawater. This process, which is also called biomineralization, therefore records the chemical signature of seawater during the time of shell formation. However, different species have different metabolism and physiology, causing them to create their shells in different ways. These biological distinctions cause species to record slightly different chemical signatures in their shells; these differences are known as vital effects.
Global paleoclimate indicators are the proxies sensitive to global paleoclimatic environment changes. They are mostly derived from marine sediments. Paleoclimate indicators derived from terrestrial sediments, on the other hand, are commonly influenced by local tectonic movements and paleogeographic variations. Factors governing the Earth's climate system include plate tectonics, which controls the configuration of continents, the interplay between the atmosphere and the ocean, and the Earth's orbital characteristics. Global paleoclimate indicators are established based on the information extracted from the analyses of geologic materials, including biological, geochemical and mineralogical data preserved in marine sediments. Indicators are generally grouped into three categories; paleontological, geochemical and lithological.
OceanParcels, “Probably A Really Computationally Efficient Lagrangian Simulator”, is a set of python classes and methods that is used to track particles like water, plankton and plastics. It uses the output of Ocean General Circulation Models (OGCM's). OceanParcels main goal is to process the increasingly large amounts of data that is governed by OGCM's. The flow dynamics are simulated using Lagrangian modelling and the geophysical fluid dynamics are simulated with Eulerian modelling or provided through experimental data. OceanParcels is dependent on two principles, namely the ability to read external data sets from different formats and customizable kernels to define particle dynamics.
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