Penicillium commune

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Penicillium commune
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Eurotiomycetes
Order: Eurotiales
Family: Aspergillaceae
Genus: Penicillium
Species:
P. commune
Binomial name
Penicillium commune
Charles Thom (1910)
Synonyms [1]
  • Penicillium flavoglaucumBiourge (1923)
  • Penicillium fuscoglaucumBiourge (1923)
  • Penicillium lanosogriseum Thom (1930)
  • Penicillium lanosovirideThom (1930)
  • Penicillium psittacinumThom (1930)
  • Penicillium ochraceum var. macrosporumThom (1930)
  • Penicillium cyclopium var. album G. Sm (1951)
  • Penicillium roqueforti var. punctatumS. Abe (1956)

Penicillium commune is an indoor fungus belonging to the genus Penicillium . It is known as one of the most common fungi spoilage moulds on cheese. It also grows on and spoils other foods such as meat products and fat-containing products like nuts and margarine. Cyclopiazonic acid and regulovasine A and B are the most important mycotoxins produced by P. commune. The fungus is the only known species to be able to produce both penitrem A and roquefortine. Although this species does not produce penicillin, it has shown to have anti-pathogenic activity. There are no known plant, animal or human diseases caused by P. commune.

Contents

History and taxonomy

The fungus species was first described by the American mycologist Dr. Charles Thom in 1910. [1] Penicillium commune is considered an ancestral wild-type of the fungus species P. camemberti , a mould commonly used in the production of soft cheese. [2] [3] Both species are similar in their ability to produce cyclopiazonic acid, a metabolite not normally produced by members of the genus Penicillium . P. commune, by contrast, is a saprotroph that produces soft, fluffy cotton-like colonies. [2] In their 1949 monograph of the genus, Raper and Thom treated P. commune and P. lanosum in subsection Lanata. [4] P. commune (Thom) was included in the series along with . Since then, there has been two additional species added: P. echinosporum (Nehira) and P. giganteum (Roy and Singh). [5] The species is presently treated in Penicillium subgenus Penicillium section Viridicata series Camemberti. [6]

Growth and morphology

The asexually produced spores (i.e., conidia) of P. commune are smooth and spherical, ranging from 3.5 to 5.0 μm in diameter, borne in disordered chains on conidiophores with rough-walled stipes. [2] [7] The conidium-bearing stalks are either produced singularly or in bundled groups known as fascicles. The stalk lengths are usually 200 to 400 μm. [2] Conidia are dull grey green or grey turquoise in colour. [7] [8] No known sexual reproduction has been described.

Penicillium commune can be distinguished by its fast growth on creatine sucrose neutral agar (CSN) while showing a slow growth rate on malt extract agar (MEA) and restricted growth on Czapek medium (CZA) and Czapek yeast extract agar (CYA). [2] [3] [7] The appearance of colonies on MEA ranges from soft, velvety and grown in unison to granular and barely grown together. The underside of colonies produced on MEA are pale-yellow coloured and sun-yellow coloured. Colonies on CZA and CYA range from soft and velvety to slightly fluffy with exudate present that can be clear to brown coloured. [2] [3] [7] In addition, the underside of the colonies grown on CZA and CYA are creamy/ dull yellow to brown-yellow in colour. The production of purple pigment has also been observed. [2] [3] [7]

Physiology

Like many other Penicillium species, P. commune is able to grow in temperatures resembling that of the refrigerator. However, the optimum temperature for the species is 25°C while the maximum limit is 37°C. [3] The minimal water activities (aw) for germination and growth for P. commune is 0.83aw which is near the lower side for fungal growth as most fungal activity is inhibited at 0.70aw or less. [7] The fungus species shows no sign of growth in environments consisting of 20% CO2 and less than 5% O2. Although, in the presence of 80% CO2 and 20% O2, there are signs of limited growth. [3] P. commune expresses lipolytic activity. [3]

The main mycotoxins produced by P. commune are cyclopiazonic acid and regulovasine A and B. Other secondary metabolites produced include: cyclopenin, cyclopenol, dehydrocyclopeptin, cylcopeptin, viridicatol, viridicatin, cyclopaldic acid, cyclopolic acid. However, the mentioned metabolites above are produced with unknown toxicity and not all isolates of P. commune produce them, with cyclopaldic acid being the only exception. [7] [9] Two neurotoxins, penitrem A and roquefortine, are produced by P. commune culture obtained from cottonseed. [10] Aside from P. roqueforti , P. commune is the only other Penicillium species known to produce roquefortine. The cottonseed study suggested that the neurotoxic effects of this species are minimal. [10] This species does not cause disease in plants, animals or humans. [11]

Habitat and ecology

Penicillium commune is found indoors and most commonly, on food products. [7] The main habitat for the fungus is cheese, including both hard and soft cheese. [3] [7] [12] With cheese being produced in an environment that is characterized by refrigeration temperatures, low oxygen availability, lipid breakdown activity, preservation actions of free fatty acids and reduced water availability, the physiology of P. commune allows the fungus to still grow in these conditions. [3] Therefore, as it is known as one of the most successful spoilage moulds of cheese, it is also the main reason for their spoilage. In addition, the fungus is frequently found as a mould growing on dry-cured meat products as well. [13] [14] This species has been isolated from other food products such as nuts, fats, margarine, fermented sausages, yogurt, sour cream, lactose powder, and high fat-filling cakes. [3] [7] It has been known to cause "phenol defect" in foods like ripening Italian ham, apples, pears and flours where the taste and smell of these products are off due to spoilage by the fungus. [3] Aside from colonizing on food products, the fungus of P. commune has also been isolated from disposed used oil. [15]

Industrial and medical applications

Penicillium commune has shown promising activity in microbial biodegradation research in relation to environmental pollutants. A 2014 study identified the potential of this species to biodegrade industrial oil waste. [15] Although the rate of bio-removing oil was dependent on volume of oil, pH level of culture and co-culture incubation period, optimal conditions resulted in a 95.4% removal rate of oil waste by P. commune. The fungus could be a new source in industrial application with respect to biodegradation of oil wastes in the environment using biological means. [15]

Although P. commune has no known penicillin activity, an environmental isolate of the fungus has shown to produce statin and to anti-pathogenic products. The fungus species was able to significantly decrease the growth of two pathogenic bacteria, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus , on biofilms in a laboratory setting. [16] In addition, there has been evidence of the production of lovastatin from the environmental isolate of P. commune. Along with its ability to improve the antibiotic performance of oxacillin, P. commune has shown to be a new promising source in the production of anti-pathogenic products for medical applications. [16]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mold</span> Wooly, dust-like fungal structure or substance

A mold or mould is one of the structures that certain fungi can form. The dust-like, colored appearance of molds is due to the formation of spores containing fungal secondary metabolites. The spores are the dispersal units of the fungi. Not all fungi form molds. Some fungi form mushrooms; others grow as single cells and are called microfungi.

<i>Penicillium</i> Genus of fungi

Penicillium is a genus of ascomycetous fungi that is part of the mycobiome of many species and is of major importance in the natural environment, in food spoilage, and in food and drug production.

<i>Penicillium roqueforti</i> Species of fungus

Penicillium roqueforti is a common saprotrophic fungus in the genus Penicillium. Widespread in nature, it can be isolated from soil, decaying organic matter, and plants.

<i>Penicillium camemberti</i> Species of fungus

Penicillium camemberti is a species of fungus in the genus Penicillium. It is used in the production of Camembert, Brie, Langres, Coulommiers, and Cambozola cheeses, on which colonies of P. camemberti form a hard, white crust. It is responsible for giving these cheeses their distinctive flavors. An allergy to the antibiotic penicillin does not necessarily imply an allergy to cheeses made using P. camemberti.

Penicillium crustosum is a blue-green or blue-grey mold that can cause food spoilage, particularly of protein-rich foods such as meats and cheeses. It is identified by its complex biseriate conidiophores on which phialides produce asexual spores. It can grow at fairly low temperatures, and in low water activity environments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Roquefortine C</span> Chemical compound

Roquefortine C is a mycotoxin that belongs to a class of naturally occurring 2,5-diketopiperazines produced by various fungi, particularly species from the genus Penicillium. It was first isolated from a strain of Penicillium roqueforti, a species commercially used as a source of proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes during maturation of the blue-veined cheeses, Roquefort, Danish Blue, Stilton and Gorgonzola.

<i>Penicillium chrysogenum</i> Species of fungus

Penicillium chrysogenum is a species of fungus in the genus Penicillium. It is common in temperate and subtropical regions and can be found on salted food products, but it is mostly found in indoor environments, especially in damp or water-damaged buildings. It has been recognised as a species complex that includes P. notatum, P. meleagrinum, and P. cyaneofulvum. Molecular phylogeny has established that Alexander Fleming's first discovered penicillin producing strain is of a distinct species, P. rubens, and not of P. notatum. It has rarely been reported as a cause of human disease. It is the source of several β-lactam antibiotics, most significantly penicillin. Other secondary metabolites of P. chrysogenum include roquefortine C, meleagrin, chrysogine, 6-MSA YWA1/melanin, andrastatin A, fungisporin, secalonic acids, sorbicillin, and PR-toxin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food spoilage</span> Often due to bacteria and fungi

Food spoilage is the process where a food product becomes unsuitable to ingest by the consumer. The cause of such a process is due to many outside factors as a side-effect of the type of product it is, as well as how the product is packaged and stored. Due to food spoilage, one-third of the world's food produced for the consumption of humans is lost every year. Bacteria and various fungi are the cause of spoilage and can create serious consequences for the consumers, but there are preventive measures that can be taken.

Penicillium carneum is a fungus species of the genus of Penicillium.Penicillium roqueforti var. carneum was reclassified to Penicillium carneum.P. carneum was isolated from spoiled meat products, silage, rye bread, water, beer, cheese, mouldy barkers yeast and cork. P. carneum produces patulin, penicillic acid, penitrem A, mycophenolic acid roquefortines.

Penicillium flavigenum is a species of the genus of Penicillium which produces penitrem A, penicillin and roquefortine C.

Penicillium psychrosexualis is a filamentous fungus in the genus Penicillium. Described as new to science in 2010, the species was found growing on refrigerated moldy apples in the Netherlands. It is closely related to the blue cheese fungus P. roqueforti.

Penicillium oxalicum is an anamorph species of the genus Penicillium which was isolated from rhizosphere soil of pearl millet. Penicillium oxalicum produces secalonic acid D, chitinase, oxalic acid, oxaline and β-N-acetylglucosaminidase and occurs widespread in food and tropical commodities. This fungus could be used against soilborne diseases like downy mildew of tomatoes

Penicillium palitans is an anamorph species of fungus in the genus Penicillium which was isolated from cheese and ancient permafrost deposits. Penicillium palitans produces viridicatin, cyclopiazonic acid, roquefortine, palitantin and ochratoxin A

Penicillium rubrum is a species of fungus in the genus Penicillium which produces kojic acid, mitorubrin, mitorubrinol, rubratoxin A, rubratoxin B rubralactone, rubramin and occurs in grain corn and soybeans. Penicillium rubrum is similar to the species Penicillium chrysogenum.

Penicillium tulipae is a species of fungus in the genus Penicillium which produces penicillic acid, roquefortine C, roquefortine D, terrestric acid, glandicoline A, glandicoline B, meleagrin, oxaline, penitrem A and epineoxaline.

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Human interactions with fungi include both beneficial uses, whether practical or symbolic, and harmful interactions such as when fungi damage crops, timber, food, or are pathogenic to animals.

Penicillium verrucosum is a psychrophilic fungus which was discovered in Belgium and introduced by Dierckx in 1901. Six varieties of this species have been recognized based primarily on differences in colony colour: P. verrucosum var. album, P. verrucosum var. corymbiferum, P. verrucosum var. cyclopium, P. verrucosum var. ochraceum, P. verrucosum var. melanochlorum and P. verrucosum var. verrucosum. This fungus has important implications in food, specifically for grains and other cereal crops on which it grows. Its growth is carefully regulated in order to reduce food spoilage by this fungi and its toxic products. The genome of P. verrucosum has been sequenced and the gene clusters for the biosyntheses of its mycotoxins have been identified.

<i>Aspergillus parasiticus</i> Species of fungus

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<i>Mucor circinelloides</i> Species of fungus

Mucor circinelloides is a dimorphic fungus belonging to the Order Mucorales. It has a worldwide distribution, found mostly in soil, dung and root vegetables. This species is described as not known to be able to produce mycotoxins, however it has been frequently reported to infect animals such as cattle and swine, as well as fowl, platypus and occasionally humans. Ketoacidotic patients are particularly at risk for infection by M. circinelloides.

<i>Penicillium spinulosum</i> Species of fungus

Penicillium spinulosum is a non-branched, fast-growing fungus with a swelling at the terminal of the stipe (vesiculate) in the genus Penicillium. P. spinulosum is able to grow and reproduce in environment with low temperature and low water availability, and is known to be acidotolerant. P. spinulosum is ubiquitously distributed, and can often be isolated from soil. Each individual strain of P. spinulosum differs from others in their colony morphology, including colony texture, amount of sporulation and roughness of conidia and conidiophores.

References

  1. 1 2 "Penicillium commune Thom, U.S.D.A. Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 118: 56 (1910)". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 4 October 2018.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Pitt, J. I.; Cruickshank, R. H.; Leistner, L. (21 September 1986). "Penicillium commune, P. camembertii, the origin of white cheese moulds, and the production of cyclopiazonic acid" (PDF). Food Microbiology. 3 (4): 363–371. doi:10.1016/0740-0020(86)90022-5 . Retrieved 6 October 2018.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Pitt, John I.; Hocking, Ailsa D. (2009). Fungi and Food Spoilage (3rd ed.). Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 237–238. Bibcode:2009ffs..book.....P. ISBN   978-0387922065.
  4. ↑ Smith, G.; Allsopp, D.; Eggins, H. O. (1981). Smith's Introduction to Industrial Mycology (7th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 258–259. ISBN   978-0470272947.
  5. ↑ Ramirez, Carlos (1982). Manual and atlas of the Penicillia. University of California: Elsevier Biomedical Press. pp. 425–428. ISBN   978-0444803696.
  6. ↑ Frisvad, J.C.; Samson, R.A. (2004). "Polyphasic taxonomy of Penicillium subgenus Penicillium: A guide to identification of food and air-borne terverticillate Penicillia and their mycotoxins". Studies in Mycology. 49: 1–174.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Samson, Robert A.; Hoekstra, Ellen S.; Frisvad, Jens C.; Filtenborg, Ole (2001). Introduction to Food- and Airborne Fungi (6th ed.). Washington, U.S.: American Society Microbiology. pp. 177, 180, 183, 198, 307, 309, 315, 323. ISBN   978-9070351427.
  8. ↑ de Hoog, G. S.; Guarro, J.; Gene, J.; Figueras, M. J. (2000). Atlas of Clinical Fungi (2nd ed.). U.S.: American Society Microbiology. pp. 15, 285. ISBN   978-9070351434.
  9. ↑ Lund, F. (1995). "Diagnostic characterization of Penicillium palitans, P. commune and P. solitum". Letters in Applied Microbiology. 21: 60–64. doi:10.1111/j.1472-765X.1995.tb01007.x.
  10. 1 2 Wagener, R. E.; Davis, N. D.; Diener, U. L. (April 1980). "Penitrem A and Roquefortine Production by Penicillium commune". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 39 (4): 882–7. PMC   291438 . PMID   16345552.
  11. ↑ Howard, Dexter H. (October 30, 2002). Pathogenic Fungi in Humans and Animals. CRC Press. p. 800. ISBN   9780824706838.
  12. ↑ Lund, F. (1996). "Direct identification of the common cheese contaminant Penicillium commune in factory air samples as an aid to factory hygiene". Letters in Applied Microbiology. 22 (5): 339–41. doi:10.1111/j.1472-765X.1996.tb01174.x. PMID   8672271.
  13. ↑ Laich, F.; Fierro, F.; Martin, J. F. (1 March 2002). "Production of Penicillin by Fungi Growing on Food Products: Identification of a Complete Penicillin Gene Cluster in Penicillium griseofulvum and a Truncated Cluster in Penicillium verrucosum". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 68 (3): 1211–1219. doi:10.1128/AEM.68.3.1211-1219.2002. PMC   123731 . PMID   11872470.
  14. ↑ Sosa, M. J.; Córdoba, J. J.; Díaz, C.; Rodríguez, M.; Bermúdez, E.; Asensio, M. A.; Núñez, F. (June 2002). "Production of cyclopiazonic acid by Penicillium commune isolated from dry-cured ham on a meat extract-based substrate". Journal of Food Protection. 65 (6): 988–92. doi: 10.4315/0362-028X-65.6.988 . PMID   12092733.
  15. 1 2 3 Esmaeili, A.; Sadeghi, E. (2014). "The efficiency of Penicillium commune for bioremoval of industrial oil". Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 11 (5): 1271–1276. doi:10.1007/s13762-014-0523-1.
  16. 1 2 Diblasi, Lorena; Arrighi, Federico; Silva, Julio; Bardon, Alicia; Cartagena, Elena (2015). "Penicillium commune metabolic profile as a promising source of antipathogenic natural products". Natural Product Research. 29 (23): 2181–7. doi:10.1080/14786419.2015.1007457. hdl: 11336/12480 . PMID   25674939.
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