Phialophora fastigiata

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Phialophora fastigiata
Phialophora fastigiata conidia UAMH1420.jpg
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Fungi
Division:
Ascomycota
Subdivision:
Pezizomycotina
Class:
Eurotiomycetes
Order:
Chaetothyriomycetidae
Family:
Herpotrichiellaceae
Genus:
Phialophora
Species:
P. fastigiata
Binomial name
Phialophora fastigiata
(Lagerb. & Melin) Conant (1937)
Synonyms
  • Cadophora fastigiataLagerb. & Melin (1928)

Phialophora fastigiata is a mitosporic, [1] saprophytic fungus commonly found in soil, [2] and on wood, [3] and wood-pulp. [4] This species was initially placed in the genus Cadophora but was later transferred to the genus Phialophora based on morphological and growth characteristics. [5] In culture, P. fastigiata produces olive-brown, velvety colonies. [3] The fungus is recognizable microscopically due to the presence of distinctive, funnel-shaped cuffs (collarettes) encircling the tips of phialides that bear slimy conidia. [2] The fungus is often implicated in soft-rot wood decay due to its ability to degrade lignin, [6] cellulose and pectin. [2] It has also been reported to cause blue staining of wood and wood pulp. [4]

Contents

History and taxonomy

Phialophora fastigiata was originally described in 1928 as Cadophora fastigiata by Lagerberg and Melin, who erected the genus Cadophora to accommodate C. fastigiata. [5] In 1937, Conant compared eight species of Cadophora with Phialophora verrucosa and determined that they belonged to the same genus. As such, seven species of Cadophora, including C. fastigiata were transferred to the genus Phialophora. [5] Although later examination of the internal transcribed spacers of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) genes in Cadophora melinii and P. fastigiata showed morphological similarity, the colony morphology of the two species is distinctive. [7]

Growth and morphology

Dried colony of Phialophora fastigiata UAMH 1420 on cellophane Phialophora fastigiata colony UAMH1420.jpg
Dried colony of Phialophora fastigiata UAMH 1420 on cellophane

Macroscopically, P. fastigiata colonies reach 2.3–2.5 cm (0.91–0.98 in) in diameter after being grown at 20 °C on malt extract agar for 10 days. [2] They exhibit an olive-brown [2] or reddish-brown [3] velvety appearance, and grow with a border of hyaline (glassy) mycelium. [3] Aerial mycelium form a floccose (fluffy) greyish-brown turf 1.0-6.5mm high, and produce rope-like strands towards the centre of the colony. [5] Although isolates usually grow uniformly, slight differences in colour, numbers of conidiophores and numbers of aerial mycelium have been observed. [8]

Phialophora fastigiata are microscopically recognized by the production of light brown, flask-shaped phialides [2] that are produced laterally on hyphae [9] and produce funnel-shaped collarettes. [2] In Petri dish cultures, the fungus tends to develop hyphal strands that are 3-4μm in diameter and show cell-wall thickening with age. [3] Slimy conidia are produced in clumps at the apex of phialides, [5] and are oval shaped (ovoid) to button shaped (ellipsoidal) with a pinched base. [2] The conidia initially exhibit a hyaline (unpigmented) appearance, but turn light brown with age. [2]

Physiology

Isolates of P. fastigiata are able to grow at temperatures ranging from 3 °C to 35 °C, with an optimum temperature range of 20 °C–25 °C and pH range between 4–9. [8] Extracts of water and acetone from balsam fir, black spruce, white spruce and red spruce have been shown to stimulate the growth of the fungus in culture. [8] The presence of biotin also increases the growth of this fungus [8] and extracts of ammonium tartrate increase mycelium production. [10] This saprophytic fungus [5] is able to gain energy from decaying organic matter, and is able to utilize asparagine and potassium nitrate as sources of nitrogen, as well as L-arabinose as a source of carbon. [10]

Phialophora fastigiata is able to produce a variety of degradation enzymes, including pectinase, amylase, xylanase, cellulase and mannanase, [2] which allow it to cause wood decay [11] and post-harvest rot. [12] Although there has been no investigation into the management of P. fastigiata, the fungus is known to be susceptible to the antimicrobial activity of ethanolic extract from Halacsya sendtneri, [13] a flowering plant in the family Boraginaceae . The fungus is also susceptible to antimycins produced by Streptomyces species. [14] Conversely, P. fastigiata exhibits antimicrobial activity against Gaeumannomyces graminis var tritici, a plant pathogen that causes take-all disease in wheat. [15]

Habitat and ecology

Phialophora fastigiata is commonly isolated from soil and wood. [2] The earliest reports of the fungus came from countries and regions rich in wood, such as Sweden, Norway and Canada. [3] It was later isolated from a spruce plantation in Norway [16] and has been found to grow on wood pulp in Sweden. [4] It is also the most abundant species found in slime from paper mills in New Brunswick and Newfoundland, [8] and has been isolated from wheat-field soils in Western Australia. [17]

The fungus is psychrotolerant (able to grow at low temperatures), and has been isolated from soil, [18] straw and wood in the Ross Sea region of Antarctica. [19] It has also been isolated from the water-saturated wood of Betula pendula trees, [20] dialysis water, municipal drinking water, [21] groundwater, surface water, and tap water. [22]

Commercial implications

Phialophora fastigiata is a soft rot fungus that has been found to widen cavities in birch and Scots pine sapwood by increasing growth at the hyphal tip and secreting lignolytic enzymes (involved in the degradation of lignin) from the hyphal surface. [6] The fungus can also cause cavities in wood and plants via an erosion-type attack. [23] The ability of the fungus to degrade the wood of Populus tremuloides (trembling aspen) has been noted to limit the sale of aspen, which represents 54% of commercial timber. [24]

P. fastigiata also commonly causes blue staining of wood. It has been found to grow on wood pulp with a greyish-green tinge, causing the wood pulp to appear blue [4] and is one of the most common species of fungi associated with discolored xylem in the stems of B. pendula. [25] Degradation and discoloration of wood by P. fastigiata affect the production quality of pulp and paper. [24]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ascomycota</span> Division or phylum of fungi

Ascomycota is a phylum of the kingdom Fungi that, together with the Basidiomycota, forms the subkingdom Dikarya. Its members are commonly known as the sac fungi or ascomycetes. It is the largest phylum of Fungi, with over 64,000 species. The defining feature of this fungal group is the "ascus", a microscopic sexual structure in which nonmotile spores, called ascospores, are formed. However, some species of Ascomycota are asexual and thus do not form asci or ascospores. Familiar examples of sac fungi include morels, truffles, brewers' and bakers' yeast, dead man's fingers, and cup fungi. The fungal symbionts in the majority of lichens such as Cladonia belong to the Ascomycota.

<i>Trichoderma</i> Genus of fungi

Trichoderma is a genus of fungi in the family Hypocreaceae that is present in all soils, where they are the most prevalent culturable fungi. Many species in this genus can be characterized as opportunistic avirulent plant symbionts. This refers to the ability of several Trichoderma species to form mutualistic endophytic relationships with several plant species. The genomes of several Trichoderma specieshave been sequenced and are publicly available from the JGI.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wood-decay fungus</span> Any species of fungus that digests moist wood, causing it to rot

A wood-decay or xylophagous fungus is any species of fungus that digests moist wood, causing it to rot. Some species of wood-decay fungi attack dead wood, such as brown rot, and some, such as Armillaria, are parasitic and colonize living trees. Excessive moisture above the fibre saturation point in wood is required for fungal colonization and proliferation. In nature, this process causes the breakdown of complex molecules and leads to the return of nutrients to the soil. Wood-decay fungi consume wood in various ways; for example, some attack the carbohydrates in wood, and some others decay lignin. The rate of decay of wooden materials in various climates can be estimated by empirical models.

Cadophora malorum is a saprophytic plant pathogen that causes side rot in apple and pear and can also cause disease on asparagus and kiwifruit. C. malorum has been found parasitizing shrimp and other fungal species in the extreme environments of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and can be categorized as a halophilic psychrotrophic fungus and a marine fungus.

<i>Fusarium solani</i> Species of fungus

Fusarium solani is a species complex of at least 26 closely related filamentous fungi in the division Ascomycota, family Nectriaceae. It is the anamorph of Nectria haematococca. It is a common soil fungus and colonist of plant materials. Fusarium solani is implicated in plant disease as well as human disease notably infection of the cornea of the eye.

<i>Phialophora</i> Genus of fungi

Phialophora is a form genus of fungus with short conidiophores, sometimes reduced to phialides; their conidia are unicellular. They may be parasites, or saprophytic.

<i>Fonsecaea pedrosoi</i> Species of fungus

Fonsecaea pedrosoi is a fungal species in the family Herpotrichiellaceae, and the major causative agent of chromoblastomycosis. This species is commonly found in tropical and sub-tropical regions, especially in South America, where it grows as a soil saprotroph. Farming activities in the endemic zone are a risk factor for the development of chromoblastomycosis.

<i>Aspergillus versicolor</i> Species of fungus

Aspergillus versicolor is a slow-growing species of filamentous fungus commonly found in damp indoor environments and on food products. It has a characteristic musty odor associated with moldy homes and is a major producer of the hepatotoxic and carcinogenic mycotoxin sterigmatocystin. Like other Aspergillus species, A. versicolor is an eye, nose, and throat irritant.

Coniochaeta hoffmannii, also known as Lecythophora hoffmannii, is an ascomycete fungus that grows commonly in soil. It has also been categorized as a soft-rot fungus capable of bringing the surface layer of timber into a state of decay, even when safeguarded with preservatives. Additionally, it has pathogenic properties, although it causes serious infection only in rare cases. A plant pathogen lacking a known sexual state, C. hoffmannii has been classified as a "dematiaceous fungus" despite its contradictory lack of pigmentation; both in vivo and in vitro, there is no correlation between its appearance and its classification.

<i>Penicillium digitatum</i> Species of fungus

Penicillium digitatum is a mesophilic fungus found in the soil of citrus-producing areas. It is a major source of post-harvest decay in fruits and is responsible for the widespread post-harvest disease in Citrus fruit known as green rot or green mould. In nature, this necrotrophic wound pathogen grows in filaments and reproduces asexually through the production of conidiophores and conidia. However, P. digitatum can also be cultivated in the laboratory setting. Alongside its pathogenic life cycle, P. digitatum is also involved in other human, animal and plant interactions and is currently being used in the production of immunologically based mycological detection assays for the food industry.

<i>Aspergillus clavatus</i> Species of fungus

Aspergillus clavatus is a species of fungus in the genus Aspergillus with conidia dimensions 3–4.5 x 2.5–4.5 μm. It is found in soil and animal manure. The fungus was first described scientifically in 1834 by the French mycologist John Baptiste Henri Joseph Desmazières.

<i>Phialemonium obovatum</i> Species of fungus

Phialemonium obovatum is a saprotrophic filamentous fungus able to cause opportunistic infections in humans with weakened immune systems. P. obovatum is widespread throughout the environment, occurring commonly in sewage, soil, air and water. Walter Gams and Michael McGinnis described the genus Phialemonium to accommodate species intermediate between the genera Acremonium and Phialophora. Currently, three species of Phialemonium are recognized of which P. obovatum is the only one to produce greenish colonies and obovate conidia. It has been investigated as one of several microfungi with potential use in the accelerated aging of wine.

<i>Phialophora verrucosa</i> Species of fungus

Phialophora verrucosa is a pathogenic, dematiaceous fungus that is a common cause of chromoblastomycosis. It has also been reported to cause subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis and mycetoma in very rare cases. In the natural environment, it can be found in rotting wood, soil, wasp nests, and plant debris. P. verrucosa is sometimes referred to as Phialophora americana, a closely related environmental species which, along with P. verrucosa, is also categorized in the P. carrionii clade.

<i>Penicillium spinulosum</i> Species of fungus

Penicillium spinulosum is a non-branched, fast-growing fungus with a swelling at the terminal of the stipe (vesiculate) in the genus Penicillium. P. spinulosum is able to grow and reproduce in environment with low temperature and low water availability, and is known to be acidotolerant. P. spinulosum is ubiquitously distributed, and can often be isolated from soil. Each individual strain of P. spinulosum differs from others in their colony morphology, including colony texture, amount of sporulation and roughness of conidia and conidiophores.

Aspergillus wentii is an asexual, filamentous, endosymbiotic fungus belonging to the mold genus, Aspergillus. It is a common soil fungus with a cosmopolitan distribution, although it is primarily found in subtropical regions. Found on a variety of organic materials, A. wentii is known to colonize corn, cereals, moist grains, peanuts and other ground nut crops. It is also used in the manufacture of biodiesel from lipids and is known for its ability to produce enzymes used in the food industry.

<i>Mariannaea elegans</i> Species of fungus

Mariannaea elegans an anamorphic fungus. It is mainly found on rotting wood and soil. M. elegans is not pathogenic to humans, animals, or plants.

Sarocladium kiliense is a saprobic fungus that is occasionally encountered as a opportunistic pathogen of humans, particularly immunocompromised and individuals. The fungus is frequently found in soil and has been linked with skin and systemic infections. This species is also known to cause disease in the green alga, Cladophora glomerata as well as various fruit and vegetable crops grown in warmer climates.

<i>Trichoderma koningii</i> Species of fungus

Trichoderma koningii is a very common soil dwelling saprotroph with a worldwide distribution. It has been heavily exploited for agricultural use as an effective biopesticide, having been frequently cited as an alternative biological control agent in the regulation of fungi-induced plant diseases. They are endosymbionts associated with plant root tissues, exhibiting mycoparasitism and promoting plant growth due to their capacity to produce different secondary metabolites.

Oidiodendron cereale is a species of ascomycetes fungi in the order Helotiales. This fungus is found globally in temperate climates where average summer temperatures are below 25 °C, but there have been scattered reports from tropical and subtropical environments. It is predominantly found in soil, but little is known regarding their ecological roles in nature. However, an enzymatic study from Agriculture Canada showed that O. cereale can break down a variety of plant, fungal, and animal based substrates found in soil, which may have beneficial effects for plants. On rare occasions, this fungus is found on human skin and hair. There has been one reported case of O. cereale infection in 1969, causing Neurodermitis Nuchae.

Rhopalophora is a genus of lichen-like fungus in the family Dactylosporaceae. It contains the sole species R. clavispora, previously belonging to the genus Phialophora but redescribed in 2016 to compose this monotypic genus.

References

  1. ↑ Carlile, Michael; Watkinson, Sarah; Gooday, Graham (22 December 2000). The fungi (2nd ed.). Academic Press. ISBN   9780127384467.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Domsch, KH; Gams, W; Anderson, TH (1980). Compendium of soil fungi . Academic Press. ISBN   978-0122204012.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 SCHOL-SCHWARZ; Beatriz, M (1970). "Revision of the genus Phialophora (Moniliales)". Persoonia. 6.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Melin, E; Nannfeldt, J. A (1934). "Researches into the Blueing of ground wood-pulp". Svenska Skogsvårdsföreningens Tidskrift. 32.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Cole, Garry T.; Kendrick, Bryce (May 1973). "Taxonomic studies of Phialophora". Mycologia. 65 (3): 661–668. doi:10.2307/3758266. JSTOR   3758266.
  6. 1 2 Hale, Michael D.; Eaton, Rodney A. (March 1985). "Oscillatory growth of fungal hyphae in wood cell walls". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 84 (2): 277–288. doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(85)80079-6.
  7. ↑ Harrington, Thomas C.; McNew, Douglas L. (2003). "Phylogenetic analysis places the Phialophora-like anamorph genus Cadophora in the Helotiales". Mycotaxon. 87: 141–151.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Brewer, D. (July 1959). "Studies on Slime Accumulations in Pulp and Paper Mills: III. The Stimulation of Growth by "White Water". Canadian Journal of Botany. 37 (4): 517–521. doi:10.1139/b59-044.
  9. ↑ Watanabe, Tsuneo (21 May 2010). Pictorial atlas of soil and seed fungi : morphologies of cultured fungi and key to species (3rd ed.). CRC Press/Taylor & Francis. ISBN   9781439804193.
  10. 1 2 Lundstrom, Hans (1974). "Studies on the physiology of the three soft rot fungi Allescheria terrestris, Phialophora (Margarinomyces) luteoviridis and Phialophora richardsiae". Studia Forestalia Suecica. 115. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.384.154 .
  11. ↑ Arenz, Brett E.; Blanchette, Robert A. (January 2009). "Investigations of fungal diversity in wooden structures and soils at historic sites on the Antarctic Peninsula". Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 55 (1): 46–56. doi:10.1139/W08-120. PMID   19190700.
  12. ↑ Sholberg, P.L.; Haag, P.D. (March 1996). "Incidence of postharvest pathogens of stored apples in British Columbia". Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology. 18 (1): 81–85. doi:10.1080/07060669609500661.
  13. ↑ Mašković, Pavle; Maksimović, Jelena; Maksimović, Vuk; Blagojević, Jelena; Vujošević, Mladen; Manojlović, Nedeljko; Radojković, Marija; Cvijović, Milica; Solujić, Slavica (1 January 2012). "Biological activities of phenolic compounds and ethanolic extract of Halacsya sendtneri (Boiss) Dőrfler". Open Life Sciences. 7 (2): 327–333. doi: 10.2478/s11535-012-0021-8 .
  14. ↑ Schoenian, Ilka; Spiteller, Michael; Ghaste, Manoj; Wirth, Rainer; Herz, Hubert; Spiteller, Dieter (1 February 2011). "Chemical basis of the synergism and antagonism in microbial communities in the nests of leaf-cutting ants". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 108 (5): 1955–1960. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.1955S. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1008441108 . PMC   3033269 . PMID   21245311.
  15. ↑ Zriba, Narjess (1997). Characterization of Phialophora spp. isolates from a Montana take-all suppressive soil and their use in suppression of wheat take-all caused by Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici (Ggt) (PDF) (PhD thesis). Montana State University (MSU).
  16. ↑ Allmér, Johan; Vasiliauskas, Rimvis; Ihrmark, Katarina; Stenlid, Jan; Dahlberg, Anders (January 2006). "Wood-inhabiting fungal communities in woody debris of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), as reflected by sporocarps, mycelial isolations and T-RFLP identification". FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 55 (1): 57–67. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6941.2005.00010.x . PMID   16420615.
  17. ↑ Sivasithamparam, K. (1975). "Phialophora and Phialophora-like fungi occurring in the root region of wheat". Australian Journal of Botany. 23 (1): 193–212. doi:10.1071/bt9750193.
  18. ↑ Blanchette, R. A.; Held, B. W.; Jurgens, J. A.; McNew, D. L.; Harrington, T. C.; Duncan, S. M.; Farrell, R. L. (8 March 2004). "Wood-destroying soft rot fungi in the historic expedition huts of Antarctica". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 70 (3): 1328–1335. doi:10.1128/AEM.70.3.1328-1335.2004. PMC   368374 . PMID   15006750.
  19. ↑ Blanchette, Robert A.; Held, Benjamin W.; Arenz, Brett E.; Jurgens, Joel A.; Baltes, Nicolas J.; Duncan, Shona M.; Farrell, Roberta L. (13 April 2010). "An Antarctic hot spot for fungi at Shackleton's historic hut on Cape Royds". Microbial Ecology. 60 (1): 29–38. doi:10.1007/s00248-010-9664-z. PMID   20386896. S2CID   575297.
  20. ↑ Przybył, Krystyna (2014). "Fungi and bacteria associated with the wet and brown wood in trunk of Betula pendula trees". Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae. 70 (2): 113–117. doi: 10.5586/asbp.2001.016 .
  21. ↑ Figel, Izabel Cristina; Marangoni, Paulo Roberto Dantas; Tralamazza, Sabina Moser; Vicente, Vânia Aparecida; do Rocio Dalzoto, Patrícia; do Nascimento, Mariana Machado Fidelis; de Hoog, G. Sybren; Pimentel, Ida Chapaval (7 March 2013). "Black Yeasts-Like Fungi Isolated from Dialysis Water in Hemodialysis Units". Mycopathologia. 175 (5–6): 413–420. doi:10.1007/s11046-013-9633-4. PMID   23467974. S2CID   14214947.
  22. ↑ Babič, Monika; Gunde-Cimerman, Nina; Vargha, Márta; Tischner, Zsófia; Magyar, Donát; Veríssimo, Cristina; Sabino, Raquel; Viegas, Carla; Meyer, Wieland; Brandão, João (13 June 2017). "Fungal Contaminants in Drinking Water Regulation? A Tale of Ecology, Exposure, Purification and Clinical Relevance". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 14 (6): 636. doi: 10.3390/ijerph14060636 . PMC   5486322 .
  23. ↑ Nilsson, Thomas (1974). "Microscopic studies on the degradation of cellophane and various cellulosic fibres by wood-attacking microfungi". Studia Forestalia Suecica. 117.
  24. 1 2 Crane, P.E.; Chakravarty, P.; Hutchison, L.J.; Hiratsuka, Y. (1996). "Wood-degrading capabilities of microfungi isolated from Populus tremuloides". Material und Organismen. 30 (1): 33–34.
  25. ↑ Hallaksela, Anna‐Maija; Niemistö, Pentti (15 December 2008). "Stem discoloration of planted silver birch". Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 13 (1–4): 169–176. doi:10.1080/02827589809382973.
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