Ross Sea

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Ross Sea
Ross Sea, Summer 2016 25.jpg
Sea ice in the Ross Sea
Antarctica relief location map.jpg
Red pog.svg
Ross Sea
Antarctic-seas-en.svg
Seas of Antarctica, with the Ross Sea in the bottom-left
Location Antarctica
Coordinates 75°S175°W / 75°S 175°W / -75; -175
Type Sea
Etymology James Ross
Primary outflows Southern Ocean

The Ross Sea is a deep bay of the Southern Ocean in Antarctica, between Victoria Land and Marie Byrd Land and within the Ross Embayment, and is the southernmost sea on Earth. It derives its name from the British explorer James Clark Ross who visited this area in 1841. To the west of the sea lies Ross Island and Victoria Land, to the east Roosevelt Island and Edward VII Peninsula in Marie Byrd Land, while the southernmost part is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf, and is about 200 miles (320 km) from the South Pole. Its boundaries and area have been defined by the New Zealand National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research as having an area of 637,000 square kilometres (246,000 sq mi). [1]

Contents

The circulation of the Ross Sea is dominated by a wind-driven ocean gyre and the flow is strongly influenced by three submarine ridges that run from southwest to northeast.[ citation needed ] The circumpolar deep water current is a relatively warm, salty and nutrient-rich water mass that flows onto the continental shelf at certain locations. [2] [3] The Ross Sea is covered with ice for most of the year.[ citation needed ]

The nutrient-laden water supports an abundance of plankton and this encourages a rich marine fauna. At least ten mammal species, six bird species and 95 fish species are found here, as well as many invertebrates, and the sea remains relatively unaffected by human activities. New Zealand has claimed that the sea comes under its jurisdiction as part of the Ross Dependency. Marine biologists consider the sea to have a high level of biological diversity and it is the site of much scientific research. It is also the focus of some environmentalist groups who have campaigned to have the area proclaimed as a world marine reserve. In 2016 an international agreement established the region as a marine park. [4]

Description

The Ross Sea was discovered by the Ross expedition in 1841. In the west of the Ross Sea is Ross Island with the Mt. Erebus volcano; in the east is Roosevelt Island. The southern part is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf. [5] Roald Amundsen started his South Pole expedition in 1911 from the Bay of Whales, which was located at the shelf. In the western parts of the Ross Sea, McMurdo Sound is a port that is usually free of ice during the summer. The southernmost part of the Ross Sea is Gould Coast, which is approximately 200 miles (320 km) from the geographic South Pole.

Geology

The continental shelf

Bathymetric map of the Ross Sea, Antarctica GPM 16 fred Ross CC.pdf
Bathymetric map of the Ross Sea, Antarctica

The Ross Sea (and Ross Ice Shelf) overlies a deep continental shelf. Although the average depth of the world's continental shelves (at the shelf break joining the continental slope) is about 130 meters, [6] [7] the Ross shelf average depth is about 500 meters. [8] It is shallower in the western Ross Sea (east longitudes) than the east (west longitudes). [8] This over-deepened condition is due to cycles of erosion and deposition of sediments from expanding and contracting ice sheets overriding the shelf during Oligocene and later time, [9] and is also found on other locations around Antarctica. [10] Erosion was more focused on the inner parts of the shelf while deposition of sediment dominated the outer shelf, making the inner shelf deeper than the outer. [9] [11]

Ross Sea Antarctica sea floor geology showing major basins and drill sites Ross Sea Antarctica sea floor geology.svg
Ross Sea Antarctica sea floor geology showing major basins and drill sites

Seismic studies in the latter half of the twentieth century defined the major features of the geology of the Ross Sea. [12] The deepest or basement rocks, are faulted into four major north trending graben systems, which are basins for sedimentary fill. These basins include the Northern and Victoria Land Basin in the west, the Central Trough, and the Eastern Basin, which has approximately the same width as the other three. The Coulman High separates the Victoria Land Basin and Central Trough and the Central High separates the Central Trough and Eastern Basin. The majority of the faulting and accompanying graben formation along with crustal extension occurred during the rifting away of the Zealandia microcontinent from Antarctica in Gondwana during Cretaceous time. [13] Paleogene and Neogene -age and faulting and extension is restricted to the Victoria Land Basin and Northern Basin. [14] [15]

Stratigraphy

Basement grabens are filled with rift sediments of uncertain character and age. [12] A widespread unconformity has cut into the basement and sedimentary fill of the large basins. [12] [16] Above this major unconformity (named RSU-6 [17] ) are a series of glacial marine sedimentary units deposited during multiple advances and retreats of the Antarctic Ice Sheet across the sea floor of the Ross Sea during the Oligocene and later. [9]

Geologic drilling

Drill holes have recovered cores of rock from the western edges of the sea. The most ambitious recent efforts are the Cape Roberts Project (CRP) and the ANDRILL project. [18] [19] [20] Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) Leg 28 completed several holes (270–273) farther from land in the central and western portions of the sea. [21] These resulted in defining a stratigraphy for most of the older glacial sequences, which comprise Oligocene and younger sediments. The Ross Sea-wide major unconformity RSU-6 has been proposed to mark a global climate event and the first appearance of the Antarctic Ice Sheet in the Oligocene. [22] [23] [24]

During 2018, Expedition 374 of the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP), the latest successor to the DSDP, drilled additional holes (U1521–1525) in the central Ross Sea for determining Neogene and Quaternary ice sheet history. [25]

Basement

The nature of the basement rocks and the fill within the grabens are known in few locations. Basement rocks have been sampled at DSDP Leg 28 drill site 270 where metamorphic rocks of unknown age were recovered, [21] and in the eastern Ross Sea where a bottom dredge was collected. [26] In both these locations the metamorphic rocks are mylonites deformed in the Cretaceous suggesting extreme stretching of the Ross Embayment during that time. [27] [26]

Marie Byrd Land – Rocks exposed in western Marie Byrd Land on the Edward VII Peninsula and within the Ford Ranges are candidates for basement in the eastern Ross Sea. [28] The oldest rocks are Permian sediments of the Swanson Formation, which is slightly metamorphosed. The Ford granodiorite of Devonian age intrudes these sediments. Cretaceous Byrd Coast granite in turn intrudes the older rocks. The Byrd Coast and older formations have been cut by basalt dikes. Scattered through the Ford Ranges and Fosdick Mountains are late Cenozoic volcanic rocks that are not found to the west on Edward VII Peninsula. Metamorphic rocks, migmatites, are found in the Fosdick Mountains and Alexandra Mountains. [29] [30] These were metamorphosed and deformed in the Cretaceous. [31] [32]

The Ross Supergroup system and Beacon Supergroup – Ross System rocks exposed in Victoria Land and in the Transantarctic Mountains on the western side of the Ross Sea [33] [34] are possible basement rock below the sedimentary cover of the sea floor. The rocks are of upper Precambrian to lower Paleozoic in age, deformed in many places during the Ross Orogeny in the Cambrian. [34] These miogeosyncline metasedimentary rocks are partly composed of calcium carbonate, often including limestone. Groups within the Ross System include the Robertson Bay Group, Priestley Group, Skelton Group, Beardmore Group, Byrd Group, Queen Maud Group, and Koettlitz Group. The Robertson Bay Group compares closely with other Ross System members. The Priestley Group rocks are similar to those of the Robertson Bay Group and include dark slates, argillites, siltstones, fine sandstones and limestones. They can be found near the Priestley and Campbell glaciers. For thirty miles along the lower Skelton Glacier are the calcareous greywackes and argillites of the Skelton Group. The region between the lower Beardmore Glacier and the lower Shackelton Glacier sits the Beardmore Group. North of the Nimrod Glacier are four block faulted ranges that make up the Byrd Group. The contents of the Queen Maud Group area are mainly post-tectonic granite.

Beacon Sandstone of Devonian-Triassic age [35] and the Ferarr volcanic rocks of Jurassic age are separated from the Ross Supergroup by the Kukri Peneplain. Beacon rocks are reported to have been recovered in the drill cores of the Cape Roberts Project at the western edge of the Ross Sea. [36] [37] [38] [39]

Oceanography

Circulation

Bloom in the Ross Sea, January 2011 Bloom in the Ross Sea.jpg
Bloom in the Ross Sea, January 2011

The Ross Sea circulation, dominated by polynya processes, is in general very slow-moving. Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW) is a relatively warm, salty and nutrient-rich water mass that flows onto the continental shelf at certain locations in the Ross Sea. Through heat flux, this water mass moderates the ice cover. The near-surface water also provides a warm environment for some animals and nutrients to excite primary production. CDW transport onto the shelf is known to be persistent and periodic, and is thought to occur at specific locations influenced by bottom topography. The circulation of the Ross Sea is dominated by a wind-driven gyre. The flow is strongly influenced by three submarine ridges that run from southwest to northeast. Flow over the shelf below the surface layer consists of two anticyclonic gyres connected by a central cyclonic flow. The flow is considerable in spring and winter, due to influencing tides. The Ross Sea is covered with ice for much of the year and ice concentrations and in the south-central region little melting occurs. Ice concentrations in the Ross Sea are influenced by winds with ice remaining in the western region throughout the austral spring and generally melting in January due to local heating. This leads to extremely strong stratification and shallow mixed layers in the western Ross Sea. [40] Observation and data access in the region is coordinated by the Ross Sea Working Group of the Southern Ocean Observing System.

Ecological importance and conservation

The Ross Sea is one of the last stretches of seas on Earth that remains relatively unaffected by human activities. [41] Consequently, the Ross Sea has become a focus of numerous environmentalist groups who have campaigned to make the area a world marine reserve, citing the rare opportunity to protect the Ross Sea from a growing number of threats and destruction. The Ross Sea is regarded by marine biologists as having a very high biological diversity and as such has a long history of human exploration and scientific research, with some datasets going back over 150 years. [42] [43]

Biodiversity

The Ross Sea is home to at least 10 mammal species, half a dozen species of birds, 95 species of fish, and over 1,000 invertebrate species. Some species of birds that nest in and near the Ross Sea include the Adélie penguin, emperor penguin, Antarctic petrel, snow petrel, and south polar skua. Marine mammals in the Ross Sea include the Antarctic minke whale, killer whale, Weddell seal, crabeater seal, and leopard seal. Antarctic toothfish, Antarctic silverfish, Antarctic krill, and crystal krill also swim in the cold Antarctic water of the Ross Sea. [44]

The flora and fauna are considered similar to other southern Antarctic marine regions. Particularly in Summer, the nutrient-rich sea water supports an abundant planktonic life in turn providing food for larger species, such as fish, seals, whales, and sea- and shore-birds.

Albatrosses rely on wind to travel and cannot get airborne in a calm. The westerlies do not extend as far south as the ice edge and therefore albatrosses do not travel often to the ice-pack. An albatross would be trapped on an ice floe for many days if it landed in the calm. [45]

The coastal parts of the sea contain a number of rookeries of Adélie and Emperor penguins, which have been observed at a number of places around the Ross Sea, both towards the coast and outwards in open sea. [5]

A 10-metre (32.8 feet) long colossal squid weighing 495 kilograms (1,091 lb) was captured in the Ross Sea on February 22, 2007. [46] [47] [48] [49] [50]

Toothfish fishery

In 2010, the Ross Sea Antarctic toothfish fishery was independently certified by the Marine Stewardship Council, [51] and has been rated as a 'Good Alternative' by the Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch program[ citation needed ]. However, a 2008 document submitted to the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) reported significant declines in toothfish populations of McMurdo Sound coinciding with the development of the industrial toothfishing industry since 1996, and other reports have noted a coincident decrease in the number of orcas. The report recommended a full moratorium on fishing over the Ross shelf. [52] In October 2012, Philippa Ross, James Ross' great, great, great granddaughter, voiced her opposition to fishing in the area. [53]

In the southern winter of 2017 New Zealand scientists discovered the breeding ground of the Antarctic toothfish in the northern Ross Sea seamounts for the first time [54] underscoring how little is known about the species.

Marine Protected Area

On 28 October 2016, at its annual meeting in Hobart, a Ross Sea marine park was declared by the CCAMLR, under an agreement signed by 24 countries and the European Union. It protected over 1.5 million square kilometers of sea and was the world's largest protected area at the time. However, a sunset provision of 35 years was part of negotiations, which means it does not meet the International Union for Conservation of Nature definition of a marine protected area, which requires it to be permanent. [4]

Beginning in 2005, the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) commissioned scientific analysis and planning for Marine Protected Areas (MPA) in the Antarctic. In 2010, the CCAMLR endorsed their Scientific Committee's proposal to develop Antarctic MPAs for conservation purposes. The US State Department submitted a proposal for a Ross Sea MPA at the September 2012 meeting of the CCAMLR. [55] At this stage, a sustained campaign by various international and national NGOs commenced to accelerate the process. [56]

In July 2013, the CCAMLR held a meeting in Bremerhaven in Germany, to decide whether to turn the Ross Sea into an MPA. The deal failed due to Russia voting against it, citing uncertainty about whether the commission had the authority to establish a marine protected area. [57]

In October 2014, the MPA proposal was again defeated at the CCAMLR by votes against from China and Russia. [58] At the October 2015 meeting a revised MPA proposal from the US and New Zealand was expanded with the assistance of China, who however shifted the MPA's priorities from conservation by allowing commercial fishing. The proposal was again blocked by Russia. [59]

See also

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References

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  2. ↑ Jacobs, Stanley S.; Amos, Anthony F.; Bruchhausen, Peter M. (1 December 1970). "Ross sea oceanography and antarctic bottom water formation". Deep Sea Research and Oceanographic Abstracts. 17 (6): 935–962. Bibcode:1970DSRA...17..935J. doi:10.1016/0011-7471(70)90046-X. ISSN   0011-7471.
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  4. 1 2 Slezak, Michael (26 October 2016). "World's largest marine park created in Ross Sea in Antarctica in landmark deal". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 28 October 2016. Retrieved 28 October 2016.
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  10. ↑ Barker, P.F., Barrett, P.J., Camerlenghi, A., Cooper, A.K., Davey, F.J., Domack, E.W., Escutia, C., Kristoffersen, Y. and O'Brien, P.E. (1998). "Ice sheet history from Antarctic continental margin sediments: the ANTOSTRAT approach". Terra Antarctica. 5 (4): 737–760.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ↑ Ten Brink, Uri S.; Schneider, Christopher; Johnson, Aaron H. (1995). "Morphology and stratal geometry of the Antarctic continental shelf: insights from models". In Cooper, Alan K.; Barker, Peter F.; Brancolini, Giuliano (eds.). Geology and Seismic Stratigraphy of the Antarctic Margin. American Geophysical Union. pp. 1–24. doi:10.1029/ar068p0001. hdl:1912/1602. ISBN   9781118669013.
  12. 1 2 3 The Antarctic continental margin : geology and geophysics of the western Ross Sea. Cooper, Alan K., Davey, Frederick J., Circum-Pacific Council for Energy and Mineral Resources. Houston, Texas: Circum-Pacific Council for Energy and Mineral Resources. 1987. ISBN   978-0933687059. OCLC   15366732.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  13. ↑ Lawver, L. A., and L. M. Gahagan. 1994. "Constraints on timing of extension in the Ross Sea region." Terra Antartica1:545–552.
  14. ↑ Davey, F. J.; Cande, S. C.; Stock, J. M. (27 October 2006). "Extension in the western Ross Sea region-links between Adare Basin and Victoria Land Basin" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 33 (20). Bibcode:2006GeoRL..3320315D. doi: 10.1029/2006gl027383 . ISSN   0094-8276.
  15. ↑ Granot, Roi; Dyment, Jérôme (9 August 2018). "Late Cenozoic unification of East and West Antarctica". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 3189. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.3189G. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-05270-w. ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   6085322 . PMID   30093679.
  16. ↑ Geology and seismic stratigraphy of the Antarctic margin, 2. Barker, Peter F., Cooper, Alan K. Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union. 1997. ISBN   9781118668139. OCLC   772504633.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  17. ↑ Hinz, K., and M. Block. 1984. "Results of geophysical investigations in the Weddell Sea and in the Ross Sea, Antarctica." In Proceedings of the Eleventh World Petroleum Congress (London 1983), edited by World_Petroleum_Council, 279–291. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
  18. ↑ Barrett, P. J.; Treves, S. B. (1981), "Sedimentology and petrology of core from DVDP 15, western McMurdo Sound", Dry Valley Drilling Project, American Geophysical Union, pp. 281–314, doi:10.1029/ar033p0281, ISBN   978-0875901770
  19. ↑ Davey, F. J.; Barrett, P. J.; Cita, M. B.; van der Meer, J. J. M.; Tessensohn, F.; Thomson, M. R. A.; Webb, P.-N.; Woolfe, K. J. (2001). "Drilling for Antarctic Cenozoic climate and tectonic history at Cape Roberts, Southwestern Ross Sea". Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union. 82 (48): 585. Bibcode:2001EOSTr..82Q.585D. doi:10.1029/01eo00339. ISSN   0096-3941.
  20. ↑ Paulsen, Timothy S.; Pompilio, Massimo; Niessen, Frank; Panter, Kurt; Jarrard, Richard D. (2012). "Introduction: The ANDRILL McMurdo Ice Shelf (MIS) and Southern McMurdo Sound (SMS) Drilling Projects" (PDF). Geosphere. 8 (3): 546–547. Bibcode:2012Geosp...8..546P. doi: 10.1130/ges00813.1 . ISSN   1553-040X.
  21. 1 2 Hayes, D.E.; Frakes, L.A. (1975), "General Synthesis, Deep Sea Drilling Project Leg 28" (PDF), Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, 28, vol. 28, U.S. Government Printing Office, doi: 10.2973/dsdp.proc.28.136.1975 , retrieved 28 August 2018
  22. ↑ Anderson, John B.; Bartek, Louis R. (1992), "Cenozoic glacial history of the Ross Sea revealed by intermediate resolution seismic reflection data combined with drill site information", The Antarctic Paleoenvironment: A Perspective on Global Change: Part One, American Geophysical Union, pp. 231–263, doi:10.1029/ar056p0231, ISBN   978-0875908236
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  24. ↑ Decesari, Robert C., Christopher C. Sorlien, Bruce P. Luyendyk, Douglas S. Wilson, Louis Bartek, John Diebold, and Sarah E. Hopkins (24 July 2007). "USGS Open-File Report 2007-1047, Short Research Paper 052". Regional Seismic Stratigraphic Correlations of the Ross Sea: Implications for the Tectonic History of the West Antarctic Rift System. 2007 (1047sir052). doi:10.3133/of2007-1047.srp052. ISSN   0196-1497.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ↑ Robert M. McKay; Laura De Santis; Denise K. Kulhanek; and the Expedition Scientists 374 (24 May 2018). International Ocean Discovery Program Expedition 374 Preliminary Report. International Ocean Discovery Program Preliminary Report. International Ocean Discovery Program. doi:10.14379/iodp.pr.374.2018.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  26. 1 2 Siddoway, Christine Smith; Baldwin, Suzanne L.; Fitzgerald, Paul G.; Fanning, C. Mark; Luyendyk, Bruce P. (2004). "Ross Sea mylonites and the timing of intracontinental extension within the West Antarctic rift system". Geology. 32 (1): 57. Bibcode:2004Geo....32...57S. doi:10.1130/g20005.1. ISSN   0091-7613.
  27. ↑ Fitzgerald, P. G., and S. L. Baldwin. 1997. "Detachment Fault Model for the Evolution of the Ross Embayment." In The Antarctic Region: Geological Evolution and Processes, edited by C. A. Ricci, 555–564. Siena: Terra Antarctica Pub.
  28. ↑ Luyendyk, Bruce P.; Wilson, Douglas S.; Siddoway, Christine S. (2003). "Eastern margin of the Ross Sea Rift in western Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica: Crustal structure and tectonic development". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 4 (10): 1090. Bibcode:2003GGG.....4.1090L. doi: 10.1029/2002gc000462 . ISSN   1525-2027. S2CID   2310914.
  29. ↑ Luyendyk, B. P., S. M. Richard, C. H. Smith, and D. L. Kimbrough. 1992. "Geological and geophysical investigations in the northern Ford Ranges, Marie Byrd Land, West Antarctica." In Recent Progress in Antarctic Earth Science: Proceedings of the 6th Symposium on Antarctic Earth Science, Saitama, Japan, 1991, edited by Y. Yoshida, K. Kaminuma and K. Shiraishi, 279–288. Tokyo: Terra Pub.
  30. ↑ Richard, S. M.; Smith, C. H.; Kimbrough, D. L.; Fitzgerald, P. G.; Luyendyk, B. P.; McWilliams, M. O. (1994). "Cooling history of the northern Ford Ranges, Marie Byrd Land, West Antarctica". Tectonics. 13 (4): 837–857. Bibcode:1994Tecto..13..837R. doi:10.1029/93tc03322. ISSN   0278-7407.
  31. ↑ Siddoway, C., S. Richard, C. M. Fanning, and B. P. Luyendyk. 2004. "Origin and emplacement mechanisms for a middle Cretaceous gneiss dome, Fosdick Mountains, West Antarctica (Chapter 16)." In Gneiss domes in orogeny, edited by D. L. Whitney, C. T. Teyssier and C. Siddoway, 267–294. Geological Society of America Special Paper 380.
  32. ↑ Korhonen, F. J.; Brown, M.; Grove, M.; Siddoway, C. S.; Baxter, E. F.; Inglis, J. D. (17 October 2011). "Separating metamorphic events in the Fosdick migmatite-granite complex, West Antarctica". Journal of Metamorphic Geology. 30 (2): 165–192. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1314.2011.00961.x. ISSN   0263-4929. S2CID   1977832.
  33. ↑ Faure, Gunter; Mensing, Teresa M. (2011). The Transantarctic Mountains. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9390-5. ISBN   978-1-4020-8406-5.
  34. 1 2 Stump, Edmund (1995). The Ross orogen of the Transantarctic Mountains. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0521433143. OCLC   30671271.
  35. ↑ Barrett, P. J. (1981). "History of the Ross Sea region during the deposition of the Beacon Supergroup 400–180 million years ago". Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 11 (4): 447–458. Bibcode:1981JRSNZ..11..447B. doi:10.1080/03036758.1981.10423334. ISSN   0303-6758.
  36. ↑ Barrett, P. J., C. R. A. Fielding, and S. Wise, eds. 1998. Initial Report on CRP-1, Cape Roberts Project, Antarctica. Vol. 5, Terra Antartica. Siena: Terra Antartica.
  37. ↑ Barrett, P.J., F.J. Davey, W.U. Ehrmann, M.J. Hambrey, R. Jarrard, J.J.M. van der Meer, J. Raine, A.P. Roberts, F. Talarico, and D.K. Watkins, eds. 2001. Studies from the Cape Roberts Project, Ross Sea, Antarctica, Scientific Results of CRP-2/2A, Parts I and II. Vol. 7, Terra Antartica.
  38. ↑ Barrett, P. J., M. Massimo Sarti, and S. Wise, eds. 2000. Studies from the Cape Roberts Project, Ross Sea, Antarctica: Initial report on CRP-3. Vol. 7, Terra Antartica. Siena: Terra Antarctica Pub.
  39. ↑ Barrett, P.J. 2007. "Cenozoic climate and sea level history from glacimarine strata off the Victoria Land coast, Cape Roberts Project, Antarctica." In Glacial Sedimentary Processes and Products, edited by M.J. Hambrey, P. Christoffersen, N.F. Glasser and B. Hubbart, 259–287. Blackwell: International Association of Sedimentologists.
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  41. ↑ Ballard, Grant; Jongsomjit, Dennis; Veloz, Samuel D.; Ainley, David G. (1 November 2012). "Coexistence of mesopredators in an intact polar ocean ecosystem: The basis for defining a Ross Sea marine protected area". Biological Conservation. 156: 72–82. Bibcode:2012BCons.156...72B. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.11.017.
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  44. ↑ "Ross Sea Species". www.lastocean.org. Archived from the original on 17 December 2013.
  45. ↑ "Sub-Antarctic and Polar bird life". 23 April 2015. Archived from the original on 23 April 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
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  51. ↑ Marine Stewardship Council. "Ross Sea toothfish longline – Marine Stewardship Council". www.msc.org. Archived from the original on 13 May 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
  52. ↑ DeVries, Arthur L.; Ainley, David G.; Ballard, Grant. "Decline of the Antarctic toothfish and its predators in McMurdo Sound and the southern Ross Sea, and recommendations for restoration" (PDF). CCAMLR. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 January 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
  53. ↑ "Ross descendant wants sea protected". 3 News NZ. 29 October 2012. Archived from the original on 22 February 2013.
  54. ↑ "Peeping in on the Mile Deep Club". Hakai Magazine. Archived from the original on 17 August 2017. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
  55. ↑ Delegation of the United States. "A Proposal for the Ross Sea Region Marine Protected Area" (PDF). Proposed Marine Protected Area in Antarctica's Ross Sea. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
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  57. ↑ New Scientist, No. 2926, 20 July, "Fight to preserve last pristine ecosystem fails"
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  59. ↑ The Pew Charitable Trusts. "Pew: Nations Miss Historic Opportunity to Protect Antarctic Waters". www.prnewswire.com (Press release). Archived from the original on 9 May 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2016.

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