Phialophora verrucosa

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Phialophora verrucosa
Phialophora verrucosa 002.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Eurotiomycetes
Order: Chaetothyriales
Family: Herpotrichiellaceae
Genus: Phialophora
Species:
P. verrucosa
Binomial name
Phialophora verrucosa
Medlar (1915)
Synonyms

Phialophora verrucosa is a pathogenic, dematiaceous fungus that is a common cause of chromoblastomycosis. [1] It has also been reported to cause subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis and mycetoma in very rare cases. [2] In the natural environment, it can be found in rotting wood, [1] soil, [3] wasp nests, [4] and plant debris. [3] P. verrucosa is sometimes referred to as Phialophora americana, a closely related environmental species which, along with P. verrucosa, is also categorized in the P. carrionii clade. [3]

Contents

History

The fungus was first isolated by Edgar Mathias Medlar in 1915 from a chronic skin lesion on the buttock of a 22-year-old man in Boston, Massachusetts [5] who presented with verrucous lesions on the buttocks and feet. [6] In consultation with Roland Thaxter, Medlar considered the fungus to represent a previously undescribed genus because the successive separation of the conidia and their maintained attachment to the cup-shaped portion of the sporogenous cells were unique characteristics not seen in any other genus. He named the genus Phialophora, meaning "shallow cup bearer" to represent the characteristic shape and the species epithet verrucosa, in reference to the resemblance of the lesion to "verrucous tuberculosis". Thaxter suggested that P. verrucosa should be classified under the subdivision, 'Chalarae' of Saccardo's classification system. [5]

Morphology and physiology

Phialophora verrucosa produces vase-shaped phialides with dark brown, cup-shaped collarettes. [7] Each phialide is typically 3–4  μm wide and 4–7 μm long. [6] Teardrop-shaped, [3] smooth-walled conidia are formed at the apices of the collarettes and accumulate in clusters. Conidia are typically 2.5–4 μm by 1.5 3 μm in size. [8] Hyphae are brown, cylindrical, and septate and are composed of thick-walled cells. [5] The hyphae do not produce conidia. [3] P. verrucosa grows well over a range of temperatures, 21–37 °C (70–99 °F) with an optimal growth temperature of 30 °C (86 °F). [9] Colonies grow slowly on oxalic acid and malt extract agar. [3] Grown on Sabouraud's agar at 3 °C (37 °F), the colony attains a diameter of 3–4 cm after 2 weeks incubation. [6]

Ecology

Although P. verrucosa was originally discovered in human tissue, it is known to occur naturally in soil, plant debris, [3] wasp nests, [4] and rotting wood. [1] In a study where multiple strains of P. verrucosa were found growing in rotting wood, soil, and the bark and log of pine trees in Japan, it was found that these isolates from the natural environment had no distinct differences from P. verrucosa isolated from human tissue. [10] P. verrucosa is widespread and can be found in Africa, Asia, Australia, North and South America, and Europe. [11] Most strains of P. verrucosa available in culture collections are derived from human mycoses. [12]

Pathology

Phialophora verrucosa is a common cause of chromoblastomycosis, [1] and a much rarer cause of subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis and mycetoma. [2] All three diseases have the potential to become chronic. [3] P. verrucosa has also been reported to cause cutaneous infections, prosthetic valve endocarditis, and mycotic keratitis. [13] However, due to its low pathogenicity, P. verrucosa does not often cause infection. [1] Infections caused by P. verrucosa can occur in both immunocompromised individuals, such as individuals who are undergoing immunosuppressive therapies or who have AIDS, [14] as well as in healthy individuals. [1] A healthy individual who became infected with P. verrucosa gained initial exposure through direct contact of the skin with soil containing the fungus. [1] Cases of chromoblastomycosis, subcutaneous phaehyphomycosis, and cutaneous infections caused by P. verrucosa have been reported to present with crusted, warty lesions [15] found on the face, [16] hands, [1] shin, [17] and sole of the foot. [2] Lesions are rarely observed on the back and upper limbs. [18]

Treatment

Antifungal drugs like itraconazole and terbinafine are typically used to treat infections caused by P. verrucosa. [1] Amphotericin B, another antifungal drug, is only used occasionally, as it is cardiotoxic and is unsuitable for long-term therapy. [19] While the spread of chromoblastomycosis to the muscle and bone is usually rare, [15] in cases where antifungal drugs alone are insufficient in controlling the dissemination of the infection, limb amputation is required. [19] Topical heat therapy, such as the use of disposable pocket warmers that sustain a temperature of 40 °C or greater for a period of 12 hours, [1] as well as localized cryotherapy, may be effective in preventing the growth of P. verrucosa and treating lesions. [15] P. verrucosa exhibits some resistance to antifungal drugs, and prescribed treatments often require a combination of antifungal drugs. [20] The use of fluconazole, followed by the combined use of oral itraconazole and the topical application of copper sulphate solution, was reportedly successful in treating a phaehyphomycotic ulcer caused by P. verrucosa. [17] In vitro, different isolates of P. verrucosa respond differently to the same combinations of antifungal drugs. The combination of amphotericin B and terbinafine was observed to cause a synergistic effect for some isolates but cause no effect in others. [20]

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<i>Cochliobolus lunatus</i> Fungal plant pathogen

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<i>Setosphaeria rostrata</i> Pathogenic fungus

Setosphaeria rostrata is a heat tolerant fungus with an asexual reproductive form (anamorph) known as Exserohilum rostratum. This fungus is a common plant pathogen, causing leaf spots as well as crown rot and root rot in grasses. It is also found in soils and on textiles in subtropical and tropical regions. Exserohilum rostratum is one of the 35 Exserohilum species implicated uncommonly as opportunistic pathogens of humans where it is an etiologic agent of sinusitis, keratitis, skin lesions and an often fatal meningoencephalitis. Infections caused by this species are most often seen in regions with hot climates like Israel, India and the southern USA.

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<i>Phialophora</i> Genus of fungi

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<i>Fonsecaea pedrosoi</i> Species of fungus

Fonsecaea pedrosoi is a fungal species in the family Herpotrichiellaceae, and the major causative agent of chromoblastomycosis. This species is commonly found in tropical and sub-tropical regions, especially in South America, where it grows as a soil saprotroph. Farming activities in the endemic zone are a risk factor for the development of chromoblastomycosis.

<i>Exophiala dermatitidis</i> Species of fungus

Exophiala dermatitidis is a thermophilic black yeast, and a member of the Herpotrichiellaceae. While the species is only found at low abundance in nature, metabolically active strains are commonly isolated in saunas, steam baths, and dish washers. Exophiala dermatitidis only rarely causes infection in humans, however cases have been reported around the world. In East Asia, the species has caused lethal brain infections in young and otherwise healthy individuals. The fungus has been known to cause cutaneous and subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis, and as a lung colonist in people with cystic fibrosis in Europe. In 2002, an outbreak of systemic E. dermatitidis infection occurred in women who had received contaminated steroid injections at North Carolina hospitals.

<i>Ochroconis gallopava</i> Species of fungus

Ochroconis gallopava, also called Dactylaria gallopava or Dactylaria constricta var. gallopava, is a member of genus Dactylaria. Ochroconis gallopava is a thermotolerant, darkly pigmented fungus that causes various infections in fowls, turkeys, poults, and immunocompromised humans first reported in 1986. Since then, the fungus has been increasingly reported as an agent of human disease especially in recipients of solid organ transplants. Ochroconis gallopava infection has a long onset and can involve a variety of body sites. Treatment of infection often involves a combination of antifungal drug therapy and surgical excision.

Coniochaeta hoffmannii, also known as Lecythophora hoffmannii, is an ascomycete fungus that grows commonly in soil. It has also been categorized as a soft-rot fungus capable of bringing the surface layer of timber into a state of decay, even when safeguarded with preservatives. Additionally, it has pathogenic properties, although it causes serious infection only in rare cases. A plant pathogen lacking a known sexual state, C. hoffmannii has been classified as a "dematiaceous fungus" despite its contradictory lack of pigmentation; both in vivo and in vitro, there is no correlation between its appearance and its classification.

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<i>Madurella mycetomatis</i> Species of fungus

Madurella mycetomatis is a fungus primarily reported in Central Africa as a cause of mycetoma in humans. It has been misclassified for many years, but with improvement of molecular techniques, its phylogenetic classification has been established. Many methods exist to identify M. mycetomatis, both in lesions and in culture. Histological examination is especially useful, as it has many unique morphological features. Strain-level differences in response to antifungal agents is informative for treatment and laboratory isolation of cultures.

<i>Fonsecaea compacta</i> Species of fungus

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Rhinocladiella mackenziei is a deeply pigmented mold that is a common cause of human cerebral phaeohyphomycosis. Rhinocladiella mackenziei was believed to be endemic solely to the Middle East, due to the first cases of infection being limited to the region. However, cases of R. mackenziei infection are increasingly reported from regions outside the Middle East. This pathogen is unique in that the majority of cases have been reported from immunologically normal people.

<i>Cladophialophora carrionii</i> Species of fungus

Cladophialophora carrionii is a melanized fungus in the genus Cladophialophora that is associated with decaying plant material like cacti and wood. It is one of the most frequent species of Cladophialophora implicated in human disease. Cladophialophora carrionii is a causative agent of chromoblastomycosis, a subcutaneous infection that occurs in sub-tropical areas such as Madagascar, Australia and northwestern Venezuela. Transmission occurs through traumatic implantation of plant material colonized by C. carrionii, mainly infecting rural workers. When C. carrionii infects its host, it transforms from a mycelial state to a muriform state to better tolerate the extreme conditions in the host's body.

Cladophialophora arxii is a black yeast shaped dematiaceous fungus that is able to cause serious phaeohyphomycotic infections. C. arxii was first discovered in 1995 in Germany from a 22-year-old female patient suffering multiple granulomatous tracheal tumours. It is a clinical strain that is typically found in humans and is also capable of acting as an opportunistic fungus of other vertebrates Human cases caused by C. arxii have been reported from all parts of the world such as Germany and Australia.

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References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Takeuchi, A.; Anzawa, K.; Mochizuki, T.; Takehara, K.; Hamaguchi, Y. (2015). "Chromoblastomycosis caused by Phialophora verrucosa on the hand". European Journal of Dermatology. 25 (3): 274–275. doi:10.1684/ejd.2015.2581. PMID   26066414. S2CID   207262846.
  2. 1 2 3 Turiansky, G. W.; Benson, P. M.; Sperling, L. C.; Sau, P.; Salkin, I. F.; McGinnis, M. R.; James, W. D. (February 1995). "Phialophora verrucosa: A new cause of mycetoma". Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 32 (2): 311–315. doi:10.1016/0190-9622(95)90393-3. PMID   7829731.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Li, Y.; Xiao, J.; de Hoog, G.S.; Wang, X.; Wan, Z.; Yu, J.; Liu, W.; Li, R. (30 June 2017). "Biodiversity and human-pathogenicity of Phialophora verrucosa and relatives in Chaetothyriales". Persoonia. 38 (1): 1–19. doi:10.3767/003158517X692779. PMC   5645179 . PMID   29151624.
  4. 1 2 Gezuele, E.; Mackinnon, J.E.; Conti-Díaz, I.A. (November 1972). "The frequent isolation of Phialophora verrucosa and Phialophora pedrosoi from natural sources". Sabouraudia. 10 (3): 266–273. doi:10.1080/00362177285190501. PMID   4640043.
  5. 1 2 3 Medlar, E. M. (July 1915). "A New Fungus, Phialophora verrucosa, Pathogenic for Man". Mycologia. 7 (4): 200–203. doi:10.2307/3753363. JSTOR   3753363.
  6. 1 2 3 Kwon-Chung, K.J.; Bennett, John E. (1992). Medical mycology. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. p. 338. ISBN   0812114639.
  7. ↑ Liu, Dongyou, ed. (2011). Molecular detection of human fungal pathogens. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press. pp. 346–347. ISBN   9781439812402.
  8. ↑ Campbell, Colin K.; Johnson, Elizabeth; Warnock, David W. (2011). Identification of pathogenic fungi (2nd ed.). Chichester: Wiley. ISBN   978-1444330700.
  9. ↑ "CBS 140325". Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute. Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute. Retrieved 13 October 2017.
  10. ↑ Iwatsu, T.; Miyaji, M.; Okamoto, S. (1981). "Isolation of Phialophora verrucosa and Fonsecaea pedrosoi from nature in Japan". Mycopathologia. 75 (3): 149–158. doi:10.1007/BF00482809. S2CID   45343939.
  11. ↑ "Phialophora verrucosa". Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute.
  12. ↑ Untereiner, Wendy A.; Angus, Andrea; Réblová, Martina; Mary-Jane, Orr (June 2008). "Systematics of the Phialophora verrucosa complex: new insights from analyses of β-tubulin, large subunit nuclear rDNA and ITS sequences". Botany. 86 (7): 742–750. doi:10.1139/B08-057.
  13. ↑ Lundstrom, T.S.; Fairfox, M.R.; Dugan, M.C.; Vazquez, J.A.; Chandrasekar, P.H.; Abella, E.; Kasten-Sportes, C. (October 1997). "Phialophora verrucosa infection in a BMT patient". Bone Marrow Transplantation. 20 (9): 789–791. doi: 10.1038/sj.bmt.1700969 . PMID   9384484.
  14. ↑ Duggan, J.M.; Wolf, M.D.; Kauffiman, C.A. (May 1995). "Phialophora verrucosa infection in an AIDS patient". Mycoses. 38 (5–6): 215–218. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0507.1995.tb00052.x. PMID   8531934. S2CID   22093140.
  15. 1 2 3 Sridhar, K.R. (2009). Frontiers in fungal ecology, diversity and metabolites. New Delhi: I.K. International Pub. House. p. 234. ISBN   9788189866914.
  16. ↑ Hofmann, H; Choi, S. M.; Wilsmann-Theis, D.; Horre, R.; de Hoog, G. S. (2005). "Invasive chromoblastomycosis and sinusitis due to Phialophora verrucosa in a child from Northern Africa". Mycoses. 48 (6): 456–461. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0507.2005.01150.x. PMID   16262887. S2CID   28365592.
  17. 1 2 Tendolkar, U.M.; Kerkar, P.; Jerajani, H.; Gogate, A.; Padhye, A.A. (January 1998). "Phaehyphomycotic ulcer caused by Phialophora verrucosa: Successful treatment with itraconazole". Journal of Infection. 36 (1): 122–125. doi:10.1016/S0163-4453(98)93666-0. PMID   9515684.
  18. ↑ Radouane, N.; Hali, F.; Khadir, K.; Soussi, M.; Ouakadi, A.; Marouane, S.; Zamiati, S.; Benchikhi, H. (January 2013). "[Generalized chromomycosis caused by Phialophora verrucosa]". Annales de Dermatologie et de Vénéréologie. 140 (3): 197–201. doi:10.1016/j.annder.2012.10.605. PMID   23466152.
  19. 1 2 Queiroz-Telles, Flavio; Esterre, Phillippe; Perez-Blanco, Maigualida; Vitale, Roxana G; Salgado, Claudio Guedes; Bonifaz, Alexandro (February 2009). "Chromoblastomycosis: an overview of clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment". Medical Mycology. 47 (1): 3–15. doi: 10.1080/13693780802538001 . PMID   19085206.
  20. 1 2 Li, Y.; Wan, Z.; Li, R. (September 2014). "In Vitro activities of nine antifungal drugs and their combinations against Phialophora verrucosa". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 58 (9): 5609–5612. doi:10.1128/AAC.02875-14. PMC   4135824 . PMID   24982078.
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