Rhizopus oligosporus is a fungus of the family Mucoraceae and is a widely used starter culture for the production of tempeh at home and industrially. As the mold grows it produces fluffy, white mycelia, binding the beans together to create an edible "cake" of partly catabolized soybeans. The domestication of the microbe is thought to have occurred in Indonesia several centuries ago.
Mucor racemosus is a rapidly growing, weedy mould belonging to the phylum, Zygomycota. It is one of the earliest fungi to be grown in pure culture and was first isolated in 1886. It has a worldwide distribution and colonizes many habitats such as vegetational products, soil and houses. The fungus is mostly known for its ability to exhibit both filamentous and yeast-like morphologies, often referred to as dimorphism. Stark differences are seen in both forms and conditions of the environment heavily affect the phases of the M. racemosus. Like many fungi, it also reproduces both sexually and asexually. The dimorphic capacity of this species has been proposed as an important factor in its pathogenicity and has enhanced the industrial importance. This species is considered an opportunistic pathogen, generally limited to immunocompromised individuals. It also been associated with allergy and inflammations of facial sinuses. Its association with allergy has made it a common fungus used in allergen medical testing. Industrial use of the fungus is in the production of enzymes and the manufacture of certain dairy foods.
G-protein coupled receptor 31 also known as 12-(S)-HETE receptor is a protein that in humans is encoded by the GPR31 gene. The human gene is located on chromosome 6q27 and encodes a G-protein coupled receptor protein composed of 319 amino acids.
12-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (12-HETE) is a derivative of the 20 carbon polyunsaturated fatty acid, arachidonic acid, containing a hydroxyl residue at carbon 12 and a 5Z,8Z,10E,14Z Cis–trans isomerism configuration in its four double bonds. It was first found as a product of arachidonic acid metabolism made by human and bovine platelets through their 12S-lipoxygenase enzyme(s). However, the term 12-HETE is ambiguous in that it has been used to indicate not only the initially detected "S" stereoisomer, 12S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,10E,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid, made by platelets, but also the later detected "R" stereoisomer, 12(R)-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,10E,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid made by other tissues through their 12R-lipoxygenase enzyme, ALOX12B. The two isomers, either directly or after being further metabolized, have been suggested to be involved in a variety of human physiological and pathological reactions. Unlike hormones which are secreted by cells, travel in the circulation to alter the behavior of distant cells, and thereby act as Endocrine signalling agents, these arachidonic acid metabolites act locally as Autocrine signalling and/or Paracrine signaling agents to regulate the behavior of their cells of origin or of nearby cells, respectively. In these roles, they may amplify or dampen, expand or contract cellular and tissue responses to disturbances.
Aspergillus sojae is a species of fungus in the genus Aspergillus.
Cunninghamella elegans is a species of fungus in the genus Cunninghamella found in soil.
Plant use of endophytic fungi in defense occurs when endophytic fungi, which live symbiotically with the majority of plants by entering their cells, are utilized as an indirect defense against herbivores. In exchange for carbohydrate energy resources, the fungus provides benefits to the plant which can include increased water or nutrient uptake and protection from phytophagous insects, birds or mammals. Once associated, the fungi alter nutrient content of the plant and enhance or begin production of secondary metabolites. The change in chemical composition acts to deter herbivory by insects, grazing by ungulates and/or oviposition by adult insects. Endophyte-mediated defense can also be effective against pathogens and non-herbivory damage.
Marine fungi are species of fungi that live in marine or estuarine environments. They are not a taxonomic group, but share a common habitat. Obligate marine fungi grow exclusively in the marine habitat while wholly or sporadically submerged in sea water. Facultative marine fungi normally occupy terrestrial or freshwater habitats, but are capable of living or even sporulating in a marine habitat. About 444 species of marine fungi have been described, including seven genera and ten species of basidiomycetes, and 177 genera and 360 species of ascomycetes. The remainder of the marine fungi are chytrids and mitosporic or asexual fungi. Many species of marine fungi are known only from spores and it is likely a large number of species have yet to be discovered. In fact, it is thought that less than 1% of all marine fungal species have been described, due to difficulty in targeting marine fungal DNA and difficulties that arise in attempting to grow cultures of marine fungi. It is impracticable to culture many of these fungi, but their nature can be investigated by examining seawater samples and undertaking rDNA analysis of the fungal material found.
Medicinal fungi are fungi which contain metabolites or can be induced to produce metabolites through biotechnology to develop prescription drugs. Compounds successfully developed into drugs or are under research include antibiotics, anti-cancer drugs, cholesterol and ergosterol synthesis inhibitors, psychotropic drugs, immunosuppressants and fungicides.
Penicillium citrinum is an anamorph, mesophilic fungus species of the genus of Penicillium which produces tanzawaic acid A-D, ACC, Mevastatin, Quinocitrinine A, Quinocitrinine B, and nephrotoxic citrinin. Penicillium citrinum is often found on moldy citrus fruits and occasionally it occurs in tropical spices and cereals. This Penicillium species also causes mortality for the mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus. Because of its mesophilic character, Penicillium citrinum occurs worldwide. The first statin (Mevastatin) was 1970 isolated from this species.
Trichoderma longibrachiatum is a fungus in the genus Trichoderma. In addition to being a distinct species, T. longibrachiatum also typifies one of several clades within Trichoderma which comprises 21 different species. Trichoderma longibrachiatum is a soil fungus which is found all over the world but mainly in warmer climates. Many species from this clade have been adopted in various industries because of their ability to secrete large amounts of protein and metabolites.
Petriella setifera is a fungus commonly found in soil and feces. The fungus has also been located on wood rot, plant species, and compost. A significant portion of P. setifera reports are found on sources with no previous association with the fungus. There are no known human cases of fungal infection, but one reported case of a dolphin infection. The fungus may have immunosuppressive characteristics, but it has not been confirmed. Many properties of the fungus are unknown, requiring further research.
Phialophora verrucosa is a pathogenic, dematiaceous fungus that is a common cause of chromoblastomycosis. It has also been reported to cause subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis and mycetoma in very rare cases. In the natural environment, it can be found in rotting wood, soil, wasp nests, and plant debris. P. verrucosa is sometimes referred to as Phialophora americana, a closely related environmental species which, along with P. verrucosa, is also categorized in the P. carrionii clade.
Aspergillus parasiticus is a fungus belonging to the genus Aspergillus. This species is an unspecialized saprophytic mold, mostly found outdoors in areas of rich soil with decaying plant material as well as in dry grain storage facilities. Often confused with the closely related species, A. flavus, A. parasiticus has defined morphological and molecular differences. Aspergillus parasiticus is one of three fungi able to produce the mycotoxin, aflatoxin, one of the most carcinogenic naturally occurring substances. Environmental stress can upregulate aflatoxin production by the fungus, which can occur when the fungus is growing on plants that become damaged due to exposure to poor weather conditions, during drought, by insects, or by birds. In humans, exposure to A. parasiticus toxins can cause delayed development in children and produce serious liver diseases and/or hepatic carcinoma in adults. The fungus can also cause the infection known as aspergillosis in humans and other animals. A. parasiticus is of agricultural importance due to its ability to cause disease in corn, peanut, and cottonseed.
The phomoxanthones are a loosely defined class of natural products. The two founding members of this class are phomoxanthone A and phomoxanthone B. Other compounds were later also classified as phomoxanthones, although a unifying nomenclature has not yet been established. The structure of all phomoxanthones is derived from a dimer of two covalently linked tetrahydroxanthones, and they differ mainly in the position of this link as well as in the acetylation status of their hydroxy groups. The phomoxanthones are structurally closely related to other tetrahydroxanthone dimers such as the secalonic acids and the eumitrins. While most phomoxanthones were discovered in fungi of the genus Phomopsis, most notably in the species Phomopsis longicolla, some have also been found in Penicillium sp.
The mycotoxin phomoxanthone A, or PXA for short, is a toxic natural product that affects the mitochondria. It is the most toxic and the best studied of the naturally occurring phomoxanthones. PXA has recently been shown to induce rapid, non-canonical mitochondrial fission by causing the mitochondrial matrix to fragment while the outer mitochondrial membrane can remain intact. This process was shown to be independent from the mitochondrial fission and fusion regulators DRP1 and OPA1.
The mycotoxin phomoxanthone B, or PXB for short, is a toxic natural product. It is a less toxic isomer of phomoxanthone A and one of the two founding members of the class of phomoxanthone compounds. The phomoxanthones are named after the fungus Phomopsis, from which they were first isolated, and after their xanthonoid structure. Chemically, they are dimers of two tetrahydroxanthones that are covalently linked to each other. PXB itself is a homodimer of two identical diacetylated tetrahydroxanthones. The position of the link between the two tetrahydroxanthones is the only structural difference between PXB and its isomers PXA and dicerandrol C: In PXA, the two xanthonoid monomers are symmetrically linked at C-4,4’, while in PXB, they are asymmetrically linked at C-2,4’, and in dicerandrol C, they are symmetrically linked at C-2,2’.
Dicerandrol C is a natural product. It is a less toxic isomer of phomoxanthone A (PXA) and phomoxanthone B (PXB), all three of which are members of the class of phomoxanthone compounds. The phomoxanthones are named after the fungus Phomopsis, from which they were first isolated, and after their xanthonoid structure. Chemically, they are dimers of two tetrahydroxanthones that are covalently linked to each other. Dicerandrol C itself is a homodimer of two identical diacetylated tetrahydroxanthones. The position of the link between the two tetrahydroxanthones is the only structural difference between dicerandrol C and its isomers PXA and PXB: In PXA, the two xanthonoid monomers are symmetrically linked at C-4,4’, while in PXB, they are asymmetrically linked at C-2,4’, and in dicerandrol C, they are symmetrically linked at C-2,2’.
Chaetomium elatum is a very common and widely distributed saprotrophic fungus of the Chaetomiaceae family of molds which has been found to grow on many different substances all over the world. It was first established by Gustav Kunze after he observed it growing on dead leaves. Its defining features that distinguish it from other Chaetomium species are its extremely coarse terminal hairs and the lemon-shaped morphology of its ascospores. It produces many metabolites with potential biotechnology uses including one with promise against the rice blast disease fungus, Magnaporthe grisea. It shows very little pathogenic ability causing confirmed disease in only a few plant species.
Torula herbarum is a darkly-pigmented filamentous fungus in the phylum Ascomycota. It is often included in the unrelated but morphologically similar group of fungi known as sooty molds. It was first described by Persoon in the genus Monilinia based on similarity to the agent of brown rot of stone fruit but later transferred to the genus Torula by Link. Conidia of T. herbarum are dark brown or olivaceous colour and have a distinctive shape and number of cells. T. herbarum produces secondary metabolites with cytotoxic activity towards bacteria and human cancer cells.
