Planetary flyby

Last updated
Plot of Mariner 10 flyby of planet Venus in February 1974 Mariner 10's encounter with Venus (diagram).jpg
Plot of Mariner 10 flyby of planet Venus in February 1974

A planetary flyby is the act of sending a space probe past a planet or a dwarf planet close enough to record scientific data. [1] This is a subset of the overall concept of a flyby in spaceflight.

Contents

The first flyby of another planet with a functioning spacecraft took place on December 14, 1962, when Mariner 2 zoomed by the planet Venus. [2]

Planetary flybys are commonly used as gravity assist maneuvers to "slingshot" a space probe toward its primary target without expending fuel, but in some cases (such as with New Horizons), flybys are the primary objectives of a mission in of themselves. Flybys modify the direction of the probe and adds to its heliocentric velocity. [3]

A relatively recent example of a flyby spacecraft is New Horizons, which performed flyby maneuvers of Jupiter, Pluto and its moons in the 21st century. The flyby of Jupiter, used as a gravity assist, allowed the craft to reach Pluto at high velocity without the complications of slowing down, after which it proceeded further into the Kuiper Belt on an escape trajectory out of the Solar System. [4]

List of planetary flybys

Flyby date Launch date Operator Spacecraft Details Mission result
19 May 1961 12 February 1961 Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Venera 1 First Venus flyby (contact lost before flyby) [5] Failure
14 December 1962 27 August 1962 Flag of the United States.svg Mariner 2 First successful non-lunar planetary encounter and first successful Venus flyby [6] Success
19 June 1963 1 November 1962 Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Mars 1 First Mars flyby (contact lost) [7] Failure
19 July 1964 2 April 1964 Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Zond 1 Venus flyby (contact lost) [8] Failure
15 July 1965 28 November 1964 Flag of the United States.svg Mariner 4 First successful Mars flyby [9] Success
6 August 1965 30 November 1964 Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Zond 2 Mars flyby (contact lost) [10] Failure
27 February 1966 12 November 1965 Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Venera 2 Venus flyby (contact lost) [11] Failure
19 October 1967 14 June 1967 Flag of the United States.svg Mariner 5 Venus flyby [12] Success
31 July 1969 25 February 1969 Flag of the United States.svg Mariner 6 Mars flyby [13] Success
5 August 1969 27 March 1969 Flag of the United States.svg Mariner 7 Mars flyby [14] Success
3 December 1973 3 March 1972 Flag of the United States.svg Pioneer 10 First Jupiter flyby [15] Success
5 February 1974 4 November 1973 Flag of the United States.svg Mariner 10 Venus flyby; first interplanetary gravity assist [16] Success
10 February 1974 21 July 1973 Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Mars 4 Mars flyby (inadvertent; attempted Mars orbiter) [17] Failure
9 March 1974 9 August 1973 Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Mars 7 Mars flyby (inadvertent; attempted Mars lander) [18] Failure
12 March 1974 5 August 1973 Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Mars 6 Mars flyby (flyby succeeded but lander failed) [19] Failure
29 March 1974 4 November 1973 Flag of the United States.svg Mariner 10 First Mercury flyby [16] Success
21 September 1974 4 November 1973 Flag of the United States.svg Mariner 10 Mercury flyby [16] Success
3 December 1974 5 April 1973 Flag of the United States.svg Pioneer 11 Jupiter flyby [20] Success
16 March 1975 4 November 1973 Flag of the United States.svg Mariner 10 Mercury flyby [16] Success
19 December 1978 14 September 1978 Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Venera 12 Venus flyby and lander [21] Success
25 December 1978 9 September 1978 Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Venera 11 Venus flyby and lander [22] Success
5 March 1979 5 September 1977 Flag of the United States.svg Voyager 1 Jupiter flyby [23] Success
9 July 1979 20 August 1977 Flag of the United States.svg Voyager 2 Jupiter flyby [24] Success
1 September 1979 5 April 1973 Flag of the United States.svg Pioneer 11 First Saturn flyby [20] Success
12 November 1980 5 September 1977 Flag of the United States.svg Voyager 1 Saturn flyby [23] Success
25 August 1981 20 August 1977 Flag of the United States.svg Voyager 2 Saturn flyby [24] Success
1 March 1982 30 October 1981 Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Venera 13 Venus flyby and lander [25] Success
5 March 1982 4 November 1981 Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Venera 14 Venus flyby and lander [26] Success
11 June 1985 15 December 1984 Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Vega 1 Venus flyby, lander, and first balloon [27] Success
15 June 1985 21 December 1984 Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Vega 2 Venus flyby, lander, and balloon [28] Success
24 January 1986 20 August 1977 Flag of the United States.svg Voyager 2 First and only Uranus flyby [24] Success
25 August 1989 20 August 1977 Flag of the United States.svg Voyager 2 First and only Neptune flyby [24] Success
10 February 1990 13 October 1989 Flag of the United States.svg Galileo Venus flyby, first of three gravity assists to Jupiter [29] Success
2 July 1990 2 July 1985 Flag of Europe.svg Giotto First Earth flyby, gravity assist for extended mission to 26P/Grigg–Skjellerup [30] Success
8 October 1990 13 October 1989 Flag of the United States.svg Galileo Earth flyby, second of three gravity assists to Jupiter [29] Success
8 January 1992 7 January 1985 Flag of Japan.svg Sakigake Earth flyby [31] Success
8 February 1992 6 October 1990 Flag of Europe.svg Flag of the United States.svg Ulysses Jupiter flyby, inclination change gravity assist for solar mission [32] Success
8 December 1992 13 October 1989 Flag of the United States.svg Galileo Earth flyby, last of three gravity assists to Jupiter [29] Success
24 August 1993 25 September 1992 Flag of the United States.svg Mars Observer Mars flyby (inadvertent; attempted Mars orbiter) [33] Failure
23 January 1998 17 February 1996 Flag of the United States.svg NEAR Shoemaker Earth flyby, gravity assist to 433 Eros [34] Success
26 April 1998 15 October 1997 Flag of Europe.svg Flag of the United States.svg Cassini–Huygens Venus flyby, first of four gravity assists to Saturn [35] Success
24 June 1999 15 October 1997 Flag of Europe.svg Flag of the United States.svg Cassini–Huygens Venus flyby, second of four gravity assists to Saturn [36] Success
18 August 1999 15 October 1997 Flag of Europe.svg Flag of the United States.svg Cassini–Huygens Earth flyby, third of four gravity assists to Saturn [37] Success
30 December 2000 15 October 1997 Flag of Europe.svg Flag of the United States.svg Cassini–Huygens Jupiter flyby, last of four gravity assists to Saturn [38] Success
15 January 2001 27 February 1999 Flag of the United States.svg Stardust Earth flyby, gravity assist to 81P/Wild [39] Success
21 April 2002 4 July 1998 Flag of Japan.svg Nozomi Earth flyby, first of two gravity assists to Mars [40] Success
19 June 2003 4 July 1998 Flag of Japan.svg Nozomi Earth flyby, last of two gravity assists to Mars [40] Success
14 December 2003 4 July 1998 Flag of Japan.svg Nozomi Mars flyby (inadvertent; planned Mars orbiter) [40] Failure
19 May 2004 9 May 2003 Flag of Japan.svg Hayabusa Earth flyby, gravity assist to 25143 Itokawa [41] Success
4 March 2005 2 March 2004 Flag of Europe.svg Rosetta Earth flyby, first of four gravity assists to 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko [42] Success
2 August 2005 3 August 2004 Flag of the United States.svg MESSENGER Earth flyby, first gravity assist to Mercury [43] Success
15 January 2006 27 February 1999 Flag of the United States.svg Stardust Earth flyby and sample return capsule reentry [39] Success
24 October 2006 3 August 2004 Flag of the United States.svg MESSENGER Venus flyby, second gravity assist to Mercury [43] Success
25 February 2007 2 March 2004 Flag of Europe.svg Rosetta Mars flyby, second of four gravity assists to 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko [42] Success
28 February 2007 19 January 2006 Flag of the United States.svg New Horizons Jupiter flyby, gravity assist to Pluto/Charon system Success
5 June 2007 3 August 2004 Flag of the United States.svg MESSENGER Venus flyby, third gravity assist to Mercury. Also characterized the planet's atmosphere. [43] Success
13 November 2007 2 March 2004 Flag of Europe.svg Rosetta Earth flyby, third of four gravity assists to 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko [42] Success
31 December 2007 12 January 2005 Flag of the United States.svg Deep Impact (EPOXI) Earth flyby [44] Success
14 January 2008 3 August 2004 Flag of the United States.svg MESSENGER Mercury flyby, fourth gravity assist before orbital insertion and primary mission [43] Success
6 October 2008 3 August 2004 Flag of the United States.svg MESSENGER Mercury flyby, fifth gravity assist before orbital insertion and primary mission [43] Success
29 December 2008 12 January 2005 Flag of the United States.svg Deep Impact (EPOXI) Earth flyby [44] Success
14 January 2009 27 February 1999 Flag of the United States.svg Stardust Earth flyby, gravity assist to 9P/Tempel [39] Success
18 February 2009 27 September 2007 Flag of the United States.svg Dawn Mars flyby, gravity assist to 4 Vesta [45] Success
29 June 2009 12 January 2005 Flag of the United States.svg Deep Impact (EPOXI) Earth flyby (distant) [46] Success
29 September 2009 3 August 2004 Flag of the United States.svg MESSENGER Mercury flyby, sixth and final gravity assist before orbital insertion and primary mission [43] Success
13 November 2009 2 March 2004 Flag of Europe.svg Rosetta Earth flyby, last of four gravity assists to 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko [42] Success
28 December 2009 12 January 2005 Flag of the United States.svg Deep Impact (EPOXI) Earth flyby (distant) [46] Success
27 June 2010 12 January 2005 Flag of the United States.svg Deep Impact (EPOXI) Earth flyby [44] Success
6 December 2010 20 May 2010 Flag of Japan.svg Akatsuki Venus flyby (inadvertent; was intended to be orbit insertion; later successfully inserted into orbit in 2015) [47] Failure
8 December 2010 20 May 2010 Flag of Japan.svg IKAROS Venus flyby, probe was a technological demonstrator that launched with Akatsuki [48] Success
9 October 2013 5 August 2011 Flag of the United States.svg Juno Earth flyby, gravity assist to Jupiter [49] Success
14 July 2015 19 January 2006 Flag of the United States.svg New Horizons First and only Pluto/Charon flyby [Note 1] [50] Success
3 December 2015 3 December 2014 Flag of Japan.svg Hayabusa2 Earth flyby, gravity assist to 162173 Ryugu [51] Success
22 September 2017 8 September 2016 Flag of the United States.svg OSIRIS-REx Earth flyby, gravity assist to 101955 Bennu Success
3 October 2018 12 August 2018 Flag of the United States.svg Parker Solar Probe Venus flyby Success
26 November 2018 5 May 2018 Flag of the United States.svg Mars Cube One Mars flyby Success
10 April 2020 20 October 2018 Flag of Europe.svg BepiColombo Earth flyby Success
23 July 2020 ~10 February 2021 Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg Tianwen 1 deployable camera Mars flyby Success
15 October 2020 20 October 2018 Flag of Europe.svg BepiColombo Venus flyby Success
5 December 2020 3 December 2014 Flag of Japan.svg Hayabusa2 Earth flyby, gravity assist to 98943 Torifune Success
27 December 2020 10 February 2020 Flag of Europe.svg Solar Orbiter Venus flyby Success
9 August 2021 10 February 2020 Flag of Europe.svg Solar Orbiter Venus flyby Success
10 August 2021 20 October 2018 Flag of Europe.svg BepiColombo Venus flyby Success
1 October 2021 20 October 2018 Flag of Europe.svg BepiColombo Mercury flyby Success
27 November 2021 10 February 2020 Flag of Europe.svg Solar Orbiter Earth flyby Success
23 June 2022 20 October 2018 Flag of Europe.svg BepiColombo Mercury flyby Success
4 September 2022 10 February 2020 Flag of Europe.svg Solar Orbiter Venus flyby Success
16 October 2022 16 October 2021 Flag of the United States.svg Lucy Earth flyby Success
19 June 2023 20 October 2018 Flag of Europe.svg BepiColombo Mercury flyby Success
24 September 2023 8 September 2016 Flag of the United States.svg OSIRIS-REx/ApEx Earth flyby, gravity assist to 99942 Apophis Success
4 September 2024 20 October 2018 Flag of Europe.svg BepiColombo Mercury flyby - Altitude 165 km - Closest planetary flyby ever done Success
  February 2025 14 October 2024 Flag of the United States.svg Europa Clipper Mars flyby Planned
 March 2025 7 October 2024 Flag of Europe.svg Hera Mars flyby Planned
 May 2026 13 October 2023 Flag of the United States.svg Psyche Mars flyby Planned
 December 2026 14 October 2024 Flag of the United States.svg Europa Clipper Earth flyby Planned

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The International Astronomical Union classifies Charon as a moon. See Charon (moon)#Classification for details.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mariner program</span> NASA space program from 1962 to 1973

The Mariner program was conducted by the American space agency NASA to explore other planets. Between 1962 and late 1973, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) designed and built 10 robotic interplanetary probes named Mariner to explore the inner Solar System – visiting the planets Venus, Mars and Mercury for the first time, and returning to Venus and Mars for additional close observations.

<i>Pioneer 11</i> First spacecraft to visit Saturn (1973–1995)

Pioneer 11 is a NASA robotic space probe launched on April 5, 1973, to study the asteroid belt, the environment around Jupiter and Saturn, the solar wind, and cosmic rays. It was the first probe to encounter Saturn, the second to fly through the asteroid belt, and the second to fly by Jupiter. Later, Pioneer 11 became the second of five artificial objects to achieve an escape velocity allowing it to leave the Solar System. Due to power constraints and the vast distance to the probe, the last routine contact with the spacecraft was on September 30, 1995, and the last good engineering data was received on November 24, 1995.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Space exploration</span> Exploration of space, planets, and moons

Space exploration is the use of astronomy and space technology to explore outer space. While the exploration of space is currently carried out mainly by astronomers with telescopes, its physical exploration is conducted both by uncrewed robotic space probes and human spaceflight. Space exploration, like its classical form astronomy, is one of the main sources for space science.

The Mars program was a series of uncrewed spacecraft launched by the Soviet Union between 1960 and 1973. The spacecraft were intended to explore Mars, and included flyby probes, landers and orbiters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of Solar System exploration</span>

This is a timeline of Solar System exploration ordering events in the exploration of the Solar System by date of spacecraft launch. It includes:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gravity assist</span> Space navigation technique

A gravity assist, gravity assist maneuver, swing-by, or generally a gravitational slingshot in orbital mechanics, is a type of spaceflight flyby which makes use of the relative movement and gravity of a planet or other astronomical object to alter the path and speed of a spacecraft, typically to save propellant and reduce expense.

<i>New Horizons</i> NASA spacecraft launched in 2006

New Horizons is an interplanetary space probe launched as a part of NASA's New Frontiers program. Engineered by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) and the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), with a team led by Alan Stern, the spacecraft was launched in 2006 with the primary mission to perform a flyby study of the Pluto system in 2015, and a secondary mission to fly by and study one or more other Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) in the decade to follow, which became a mission to 486958 Arrokoth. It is the fifth space probe to achieve the escape velocity needed to leave the Solar System.

<i>Pluto Kuiper Express</i> Cancelled NASA flyby mission to Pluto

Pluto Kuiper Express was an interplanetary space probe that was proposed by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) scientists and engineers and under development by NASA. The spacecraft was intended to be launched to study Pluto and its moon Charon, along with one or more other Kuiper belt objects (KBOs). The proposal was the third of its kind, after the Pluto 350 and a proposal to send a Mariner Mark II spacecraft to Pluto.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mariner Mark II</span> Planned family of uncrewed NASA spacecraft

Mariner Mark II was NASA's planned family of uncrewed spacecraft for the exploration of the outer Solar System that were to be developed and operated by JPL between 1980 through the year 2010.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exploration of Saturn</span> Overview of the exploration of Saturn

The exploration of Saturn has been solely performed by crewless probes. Three missions were flybys, which formed an extended foundation of knowledge about the system. The Cassini–Huygens spacecraft, launched in 1997, was in orbit from 2004 to 2017.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Discovery and exploration of the Solar System</span>

Discovery and exploration of the Solar System is observation, visitation, and increase in knowledge and understanding of Earth's "cosmic neighborhood". This includes the Sun, Earth and the Moon, the major planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, their satellites, as well as smaller bodies including comets, asteroids, and dust.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exploration of Pluto</span> Overview of the exploration of Pluto

The exploration of Pluto began with the arrival of the New Horizons probe in July 2015, though proposals for such a mission had been studied for many decades. There are no plans as yet for a follow-up mission, though follow-up concepts have been studied.

<i>Argo</i> (NASA spacecraft) 2009 NASA spacecraft mission concept

Argo was a 2009 spacecraft mission concept by NASA to the outer planets and beyond. The concept included flybys of Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, and a Kuiper belt object. A focus on Neptune and its largest moon Triton would have helped answer some of the questions generated by Voyager 2's flyby in 1989, and would have provided clues to ice giant formation and evolution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flyby (spaceflight)</span> Flight event at some distance from the object

A flyby is a spaceflight operation in which a spacecraft passes in proximity to another body, usually a target of its space exploration mission and/or a source of a gravity assist to impel it towards another target. Spacecraft which are specifically designed for this purpose are known as flyby spacecraft, although the term has also been used in regard to asteroid flybys of Earth for example. Important parameters are the time and distance of closest approach.

REX (<i>New Horizons</i>) NASA Pluto space probe radio experiment (2015)

REX or Radio Science Experiment is an experiment on the New Horizons space probe to measure properties of the atmosphere of Pluto during the 2015 flyby.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of New Horizons</span>

Timeline for the New Horizons interplanetary space probe lists the significant events of the launch, transition phases as well as subsequent significant operational mission events; by date and brief description.

References

  1. ↑ "Flyby | Define Flyby at Dictionary.com" . Retrieved 2015-07-15.
  2. ↑ "First Planetary Flyby Occurred 50 Years Ago Today". Space.com . 14 December 2012. Retrieved 2015-07-15.
  3. ↑ ANDERSON, J; CAMPBELL, J; NIETO, M (July 2007). "The energy transfer process in planetary flybys". New Astronomy. 12 (5): 383–397. arXiv: astro-ph/0608087 . Bibcode:2007NewA...12..383A. doi:10.1016/j.newast.2006.11.004. ISSN   1384-1076.
  4. ↑ Talbert, Tricia (2015-03-25). "New Horizons: The First Mission to the Pluto System and the Kuiper Belt". NASA. Retrieved 2020-07-10.
  5. ↑ "Venera 1". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  6. ↑ "Mariner 2". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  7. ↑ "Mars 1". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  8. ↑ "Zond 1". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  9. ↑ "Mariner 4". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  10. ↑ "Zond 2". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  11. ↑ "Venera 2". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  12. ↑ "Mariner 5". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  13. ↑ "Mariner 6". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  14. ↑ "Mariner 7". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  15. ↑ "Pioneer 10". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  16. 1 2 3 4 "Mariner 10". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  17. ↑ "Mars 4". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  18. ↑ "Mars 7". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  19. ↑ "Mars 6". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  20. 1 2 "Pioneer 11". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  21. ↑ "Venera 12". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  22. ↑ "Venera 11". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  23. 1 2 "Voyager 1". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  24. 1 2 3 4 "Voyager 2". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  25. ↑ "Venera 13". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  26. ↑ "Venera 14". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  27. ↑ "Vega 1". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  28. ↑ "Vega 2". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  29. 1 2 3 "Galileo - In Depth | Missions - NASA Solar System Exploration". NASA Solar System Exploration. Archived from the original on 2016-01-29. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  30. ↑ "Giotto". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  31. ↑ "Sakigake". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  32. ↑ "Ulysses - In Depth | Missions - NASA Solar System Exploration". NASA Solar System Exploration. Archived from the original on 2015-12-18. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  33. ↑ "Mars Observer". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  34. ↑ "NEAR Shoemaker". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  35. ↑ "Cassini Completes First Venus Flyby". Cassini Solstice Mission. Archived from the original on 2013-04-30. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  36. ↑ "Cassini Completes Second Venus Flyby". Cassini Solstice Mission. Archived from the original on 2012-09-21. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  37. ↑ "Cassini Completes Earth Flyby". Cassini Solstice Mission. Archived from the original on 2012-09-21. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  38. ↑ "Press release: Cassini Celebrates 10 Years Since Jupiter Encounter". NASA. December 29, 2010.
  39. 1 2 3 "Stardust/NExT". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  40. 1 2 3 "Nozomi". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  41. ↑ "Hayabusa". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  42. 1 2 3 4 "Rosetta". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  43. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "MESSENGER". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  44. 1 2 3 "Deep Impact/EPOXI". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  45. ↑ "Dawn". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  46. 1 2 "NASA - EPOXI Mission - Mission". epoxi.umd.edu. Archived from the original on 2009-12-14. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  47. ↑ "Akatsuki". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  48. ↑ "IKAROS". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2016-01-05.
  49. ↑ "Juno". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  50. ↑ "New Horizons Pluto Kuiper Belt Flyby". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
  51. ↑ "Hayabusa 2". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.