Mariner 2

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Mariner 2
Mariner 2 Engineering Model.jpg
Mariner 2 engineering model
Mission type Venus flyby
Operator NASA / JPL
Harvard designation1962 Alpha Rho 1 [1]
COSPAR ID 1962-041A OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
SATCAT no. 374
Mission duration4 months and 7 days
Spacecraft properties
Spacecraft type Ranger Block I
Manufacturer JPL
Launch mass203.6 kilograms (449 lb) [2]
Power220 watts (at Venus encounter)
Start of mission
Launch dateAugust 27, 1962, 06:53:14 (1962-08-27UTC06:53:14Z) UTC [1]
Rocket Atlas LV-3 Agena-B
Launch site Cape Canaveral LC-12
End of mission
DisposalDecommissioned
Last contactJanuary 3, 1963 (1963-01-04) 7:00 UTC [3]
Orbital parameters
Reference systemHeliocentric [4]
Eccentricity 0.16278
Perihelion altitude 0.720 AU (107,700,000 km; 66,900,000 mi)
Aphelion altitude 1.000 AU (149,600,000 km; 93,000,000 mi)
Period 292 days
Epoch 14 December 1962
Flyby of Venus
Closest approach14 December 1962
Distance34,773 km (21,607 mi)
←  Mariner 1
Mariner 3  →
 
President Kennedy is shown a model of Mariner 2 during a meeting with NASA officials after the successful completion of the mission, 1963 Kennedy Receives Mariner 2 Model.jpg
President Kennedy is shown a model of Mariner 2 during a meeting with NASA officials after the successful completion of the mission, 1963

Mariner 2 (Mariner-Venus 1962), an American space probe to Venus, was the first robotic space probe to report successfully from a planetary encounter. The first successful spacecraft in the NASA Mariner program, it was a simplified version of the Block I spacecraft of the Ranger program and an exact copy of Mariner 1. The missions of the Mariner 1 and 2 spacecraft are sometimes known as the Mariner R missions. Original plans called for the probes to be launched on the Atlas-Centaur, but serious developmental problems with that vehicle forced a switch to the much smaller Agena B second stage. As such, the design of the Mariner R vehicles was greatly simplified. Far less instrumentation was carried than on the Soviet Venera probes of this period—for example, forgoing a TV camera—as the Atlas-Agena B had only half as much lift capacity as the Soviet 8K78 booster. The Mariner 2 spacecraft was launched from Cape Canaveral on August 27, 1962, and passed as close as 34,773 kilometers (21,607 mi) to Venus on December 14, 1962. [4]

Contents

The Mariner probe consisted of a 100 cm (39.4 in) diameter hexagonal bus, to which solar panels, instrument booms, and antennas were attached. The scientific instruments on board the Mariner spacecraft were: two radiometers (one each for the microwave and infrared portions of the spectrum), a micrometeorite sensor, a solar plasma sensor, a charged particle sensor, and a magnetometer. These instruments were designed to measure the temperature distribution on the surface of Venus and to make basic measurements of Venus' atmosphere.

The primary mission was to receive communications from the spacecraft in the vicinity of Venus and to perform radiometric temperature measurements of the planet. A second objective was to measure the interplanetary magnetic field and charged particle environment. [5] [6]

En route to Venus, Mariner 2 measured the solar wind, a constant stream of charged particles flowing outwards from the Sun, confirming the measurements by Luna 1 in 1959. It also measured interplanetary dust, which turned out to be scarcer than predicted. In addition, Mariner 2 detected high-energy charged particles coming from the Sun, including several brief solar flares, as well as cosmic rays from outside the Solar System. As it flew by Venus on December 14, 1962, Mariner 2 scanned the planet with its pair of radiometers, revealing that Venus has cool clouds and an extremely hot surface.

Background

Mariner II trajectory projected on the ecliptic plane. Mariner 2 trajectory.jpg
Mariner II trajectory projected on the ecliptic plane.

With the advent of the Cold War, the two then-superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, both initiated ambitious space programs with the intent of demonstrating military, technological, and political dominance. [7] The Soviets launched the Sputnik 1, the first Earth orbiting satellite, on October 4, 1957. The Americans followed suit with Explorer 1 on February 1, 1958, by which point the Soviets had already launched the first orbiting animal, Laika in Sputnik 2. Earth's orbit having been reached, focus turned to being the first to the Moon. The Pioneer program of satellites consisted of three unsuccessful lunar attempts in 1958. In early 1959, the Soviet Luna 1 was the first probe to fly by the Moon, followed by Luna 2, the first artificial object to impact the Moon. [8]

With the Moon achieved, the superpowers turned their eyes to the planets. As the closest planet to Earth, Venus presented an appealing interplanetary spaceflight target. [9] : 172  Every 19 months, Venus and the Earth reach relative positions in their orbits around the Sun such that a minimum of fuel is required to travel from one planet to the other via a Hohmann Transfer Orbit. These opportunities mark the best time to launch exploratory spacecraft, requiring the least fuel to make the trip. [10]

Depiction of Mariner 2 in space Mariner 2.jpg
Depiction of Mariner 2 in space

The first such opportunity of the Space Race occurred in late 1957, before either superpower had the technology to take advantage of it. The second opportunity, around June 1959, lay just within the edge of technological feasibility, and U.S. Air Force contractor Space Technology Laboratory (STL) intended to take advantage of it. A plan drafted January 1959 involved two spacecraft evolved from the first Pioneer probes, one to be launched via Thor-Able rocket, the other via the yet-untested Atlas-Able. [11] STL was unable to complete the probes before June, [12] and the launch window was missed. The Thor-Able probe was repurposed as the deep space explorer Pioneer 5, which was launched March 11, 1960, and designed to maintain communications with Earth up to a distance of 20,000,000 mi (32,000,000 km) as it traveled toward the orbit of Venus. [13] (The Atlas Able probe concept was repurposed as the unsuccessful Pioneer Atlas Moon probes.) [14] No American missions were sent during the early 1961 opportunity. The Soviet Union launched Venera 1 on February 12, 1961, and on May 19–20 became the first probe to fly by Venus; however, it had stopped transmitting on February 26. [15]

For the summer 1962 launch opportunity, NASA contracted Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in July 1960 [9] : 172  to develop "Mariner A", a 1,250 lb (570 kg) spacecraft to be launched using the yet undeveloped Atlas-Centaur. By August 1961, it had become clear that the Centaur would not be ready in time. JPL proposed to NASA that the mission might be accomplished with a lighter spacecraft using the less powerful but operational Atlas-Agena. A hybrid of Mariner A and JPL's Block 1 Ranger lunar explorer, already under development, was suggested. NASA accepted the proposal, and JPL began an 11-month crash program to develop "Mariner R" (so named because it was a Ranger derivative). Mariner 1 would be the first Mariner R to be launched followed by Mariner 2. [16]

Spacecraft

Three Mariner R spacecraft were built: two for launching and one to run tests, which was also to be used as a spare. [9] : 174  Aside from its scientific capabilities, Mariner also had to transmit data back to Earth from a distance of more than 26,000,000 mi (42,000,000 km), and to survive solar radiation twice as intense as that encountered in Earth orbit. [9] : 176 

Structure

Diagram of Mariner 1 Diagram of Mariner 1.jpg
Diagram of Mariner 1

All three of the Mariner R spacecraft, including Mariner 2, weighed within 3 lb (1.4 kg) of the design weight of 447 lb (203 kg), 406 lb (184 kg) of which was devoted to non-experimental systems: maneuvering systems, fuel, and communications equipment for receiving commands and transmitting data. Once fully deployed in space, with its two solar panel "wings" extended, Mariner R was 12 ft (3.7 m) in height and 16.5 ft (5.0 m) across. The main body of the craft was hexagonal with six separate cases of electronic and electromechanical equipment:

At the rear of the spacecraft, a monopropellant (anhydrous hydrazine) 225 N [17] rocket motor was mounted for course corrections. A nitrogen gas fueled stabilizing system of ten jet nozzles controlled by the onboard gyroscopes, Sun sensors, and Earth sensors, kept Mariner properly oriented to receive and transmit data to Earth. [9] : 175 

The primary high-gain parabolic antenna was also mounted on the underside of Mariner and kept pointed toward the Earth. An omnidirectional antenna atop the spacecraft would broadcast at times that the spacecraft was rolling or tumbling out of its proper orientation, to maintain contact with Earth; as an unfocused antenna, its signal would be much weaker than the primary. Mariner also mounted small antennas on each of the wings to receive commands from ground stations. [9] : 175–176 

Temperature control was both passive, involving insulated, and highly reflective components; and active, incorporating louvers to protect the case carrying the onboard computer. At the time the first Mariners were built, no test chamber existed to simulate the near-Venus solar environment, so the efficacy of these cooling techniques could not be tested until the live mission. [9] : 176 

Scientific instruments

Background

At the time of the Mariner project's inception, few of Venus' characteristics were definitely known. Its opaque atmosphere precluded telescopic study of the ground. It was unknown whether there was water beneath the clouds, though a small amount of water vapor above them had been detected. The planet's rotation rate was uncertain, though JPL scientists had concluded through radar observation that Venus rotated very slowly compared to the Earth, advancing the long-standing [18] (but later disproven [19] ) hypothesis that the planet was tidally locked with respect to the Sun (as the Moon is with respect to the Earth). [20] No oxygen had been detected in Venus' atmosphere, suggesting that life as existed on Earth was not present. It had been determined that Venus' atmosphere contained at least 500 times as much carbon dioxide as the Earth's. These comparatively high levels suggested that the planet might be subject to a runaway greenhouse effect with surface temperatures as high as 600 K (327 °C; 620 °F), but this had not yet been conclusively determined. [16] : 7–8 

The Mariner spacecraft would be able to verify this hypothesis by measuring the temperature of Venus close-up; [21] at the same time, the spacecraft could determine if there was a significant disparity between night and daytime temperatures. [16] : 331  An on-board magnetometer and suite of charged particle detectors could determine if Venus possessed an appreciable magnetic field and an analog to Earth's Van Allen Belts. [21]

As the Mariner spacecraft would spend most of its journey to Venus in interplanetary space, the mission also offered an opportunity for long-term measurement of the solar wind of charged particles and to map the variations in the Sun's magnetosphere. The concentration of cosmic dust beyond the vicinity of Earth could be explored as well. [9] : 176 

Due to the limited capacity of the Atlas Agena, only 18 kilograms (40 lb) of the spacecraft could be allocated to scientific experiments. [16] : 195 

Instruments

  • A two-channel microwave radiometer of the crystal video type operating in the standard Dicke mode of chopping between the main antenna, pointed at the target, and a reference horn pointed at cold space. [22] It was used to determine the absolute temperature of Venus' surface and details concerning its atmosphere through its microwave-radiation characteristics, including the daylight and dark hemispheres, and in the region of the terminator. Measurements were performed simultaneously in two frequency bands of 13.5 mm and 19 mm. [16] : 198–204  [23] The total weight of the radiometer was 10 kilograms (22 lb). Its average power consumption was 4 watts and its peak power consumption 9 watts. [24]
Labeled diagram of the infrared radiometer design Mariner 2 infrared radiometer.png
Labeled diagram of the infrared radiometer design
  • A two-channel infrared radiometer to measure the effective temperatures of small areas of Venus. The radiation that was received could originate from the planetary surface, clouds in the atmosphere, the atmosphere itself or a combination of these. The radiation was received in two spectral ranges: 8 to 9 μm (focused on 8.4 μm) and 10 to 10.8 μm (focused on 10.4 μm). [16] : 205–213  The latter corresponding to the carbon dioxide band. [25] The total weight of the infrared radiometer, which was housed in a magnesium casting, was 1.3 kilograms (2.9 lb), and it required 2.4 watts of power. It was designed to measure radiation temperatures between approximately 200 and 500 K (−73 and 227 °C; −100 and 440 °F). [26]
  • A three-axis fluxgate magnetometer to measure planetary and interplanetary magnetic fields. [16] : 213–218  Three probes were incorporated in its sensors, so it could obtain three mutually orthogonal components of the field vector. Readings of these components were separated by 1.9 seconds. It had three analog outputs that had each two sensitivity scales: ± 64 γ and ± 320 γ (1 γ = 1  nanotesla). These scales were automatically switched by the instrument. The field that the magnetometer observed was the super-position of a nearly constant spacecraft field and the interplanetary field. Thus, it effectively measured only the changes in the interplanetary field. [27]
  • A particle detector (implemented through use of an Anton type 213 Geiger-Müller tube) to measure lower radiation (especially near Venus), [16] : 219–223  [29] also known as the Iowa detector, as it was provided by the University of Iowa. [28] It was a miniature tube having a 1.2 mg/cm2 mica window about 0.3 centimeters (0.12 in) in diameter and weighing about 60 grams (2.1 oz). It detected soft x-rays efficiently and ultraviolet inefficiently, and was previously used in Injun 1, Explorer 12 and Explorer 14. [29] It was able to detect protons above 500 keV in energy and electrons above 35 keV. [5] The length of the basic telemetry frame was 887.04 seconds. During each frame, the counting rate of the detector was sampled twice at intervals separated by 37 seconds. The first sampling was the number of counts during an interval of 9.60 seconds (known as the 'long gate'); the second was the number of counts during an interval of 0.827 seconds (known as the 'short gate'). The long gate accumulator overflowed on the 256th count and the short gate accumulator overflowed on the 65,536th count. The maximum counting rate of the tube was 50,000 per second. [29]
  • A cosmic dust detector to measure the flux of cosmic dust particles in space. [16] : 223–224 
Instrument for studying plasma Mariner 2 plasma probe.png
Instrument for studying plasma
  • A solar plasma spectrometer to measure the spectrum of low-energy positively charged particles from the Sun, i.e. the solar wind. [16] : 224–228 

The magnetometer was attached to the top of the mast below the omnidirectional antenna. Particle detectors were mounted halfway up the mast, along with the cosmic ray detector. The cosmic dust detector and solar plasma spectrometer were attached to the top edges of the spacecraft base. The microwave radiometer, the infrared radiometer and the radiometer reference horns were rigidly mounted to a 48 centimeters (19 in) diameter parabolic radiometer antenna mounted near the bottom of the mast. All instruments were operated throughout the cruise and encounter modes except the radiometers, which were only used in the immediate vicinity of Venus.

In addition to these scientific instruments, Mariner 2 had a data conditioning system (DCS) and a scientific power switching (SPS) unit. The DCS was a solid-state electronic system designed to gather information from the scientific instruments on board the spacecraft. It had four basic functions: analog-to-digital conversion, digital-to-digital conversion, sampling and instrument-calibration timing, and planetary acquisition. The SPS unit was designed to perform the following three functions: control of the application of AC power to appropriate portions of the science subsystem, application of power to the radiometers and removal of power from the cruise experiments during radiometer calibration periods, and control of the speed and direction of the radiometer scans. The DCS sent signals to the SPS unit to perform the latter two functions. [16]

Not included on any of the Mariner R spacecraft was a camera for visual photos. With payload space at a premium, project scientists considered a camera an unneeded luxury, unable to return useful scientific results. Carl Sagan, one of the Mariner R scientists, unsuccessfully fought for their inclusion, noting that not only might there be breaks in Venus' cloud layer, but "that cameras could also answer questions that we were way too dumb to even pose". [30]

Mission profile

Prelude to Mariner 2

The communications station at Woomera Woomera 1964 0(1).jpg
The communications station at Woomera

The launch window for Mariner, constrained both by the orbital relationship of Earth and Venus and the limitations of the Atlas Agena, was determined to fall in the 51-day period from July 22 through September 10. [9] : 174  The Mariner flight plan was such that the two operational spacecraft would be launched toward Venus in a 30-day period within this window, taking slightly differing paths such that they both arrived at the target planet within nine days of each other, between the December 8 and 16. [31] Only Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 12 was available for the launching of Atlas-Agena rockets, and it took 24 days to ready an Atlas-Agena for launch. This meant that there was only a 27-day margin for error for a two-launch schedule. [9] : 174 

Each Mariner would be launched into a parking orbit, whereupon the restartable Agena would fire a second time, sending Mariner on its way to Venus (errors in trajectory would be corrected by a mid-course burn of Mariner's onboard engines). [16] : 66–67  Real-time radar tracking of the Mariner spacecraft while it was in parking orbit and upon its departure the Atlantic Missile Range would provide real-time radar tracking with stations at Ascension and Pretoria, while Palomar Observatory provided optical tracking. Deep space support was provided by three tracking and communications stations at Goldstone, California, Woomera, Australia, and Johannesburg, South Africa, each separated on the globe by around 120° for continuous coverage. [16] : 231–233 

On July 22, 1962, the two-stage Atlas-Agena rocket carrying Mariner 1 veered off-course during its launch due to a defective signal from the Atlas and a bug in the program equations of the ground-based guidance computer; the spacecraft was destroyed by the Range Safety Officer.

Two days after that launch, Mariner 2 and its booster (Atlas vehicle 179D) were rolled out to LC-12. The Atlas proved troublesome to prepare for launch, and multiple serious problems with the autopilot occurred, including a complete replacement of the servoamplifier after it had suffered component damage due to shorted transistors. [32]

Launch

The launch of Mariner 2, on August 27, 1962. Mariner 2 launch.jpg
The launch of Mariner 2, on August 27, 1962.
Mariner Atlas-Agena ignition
Animation of Mariner 2's trajectory from August 27, 1962, to December 31, 1962 .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} Mariner 2 * Venus * Earth Animation of Mariner 2 trajectory.gif
Animation of Mariner 2's trajectory from August 27, 1962, to December 31, 1962
   Mariner 2 ·   Venus  ·   Earth

At 1:53 AM EST on August 27, Mariner 2 was launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 12 at 06:53:14 UTC. [16] : 97  [32] The bug in the rocket’s software that resulted in the loss of Mariner 1 had not been identified at the time of the launch. [33] In the event the bug caused no issues with the launch since it was in a section of code that was only used when the data-feed from the ground was interrupted and there were no such interruptions during the launch of Mariner 2. [33]

The flight proceeded normally up to the point of the Agena booster engine cutoff, at which point the V-2 vernier engine lost pitch and yaw control. The vernier started oscillating and banging against its stops, resulting in a rapid roll of the launch vehicle that came close to threatening the integrity of the stack. At T+189 seconds, the rolling stopped and the launch continued without incident. The rolling motion of the Atlas resulted in ground guidance losing its lock on the booster and preventing any backup commands from being sent to counteract the roll. The incident was traced to a loose electrical connection in the vernier feedback transducer, which was pushed back into place by the centrifugal force of the roll, which also by fortunate coincidence left the Atlas only a few degrees off from where it started and within the range of the Agena's horizontal sensor. As a consequence of this episode, GD/A implemented improved fabrication of wiring harnesses and checkout procedures.

Five minutes after liftoff, the Atlas and Agena-Mariner separated, followed by the first Agena burn and second Agena burn. The Agena-Mariner separation injected the Mariner 2 spacecraft into a geocentric escape hyperbola at 26 minutes 3 seconds after liftoff. The NASA NDIF tracking station at Johannesburg, South Africa, acquired the spacecraft about 31 minutes after launch. Solar panel extension was completed approximately 44 minutes after launch. The Sun lock acquired the Sun about 18 minutes later. The high-gain antenna was extended to its acquisition angle of 72°. The output of the solar panels was slightly above the predicted value.

As all subsystems were performing normally, with the battery fully charged and the solar panels providing adequate power, the decision was made on August 29 to turn on cruise science experiments. On September 3, the Earth acquisition sequence was initiated, and Earth lock was established 29 minutes later. [16] : 97–109 

Mid-course maneuver

Due to the Atlas-Agena putting Mariner slightly off course, the spacecraft required a mid-course correction, consisting of a roll-turn sequence, followed by a pitch-turn sequence and finally a motor-burn sequence. Preparation commands were sent to the spacecraft at 21:30 UTC on September 4. Initiation of the mid-course maneuver sequence was sent at 22:49:42 UTC and the roll-turn sequence started one hour later. The entire maneuver took approximately 34 minutes. As a result of the mid-course maneuver, the sensors lost their lock with the Sun and Earth. At 00:27:00 UTC the Sun re-acquisition began and at 00:34 UTC the Sun was reacquired. Earth re-acquisition started at 02:07:29 UTC and Earth was reacquired at 02:34 UTC. [16] : 111–113 

Loss of attitude control

On September 8 at 12:50 UTC, the spacecraft experienced a problem with attitude control. It automatically turned on the gyros, and the cruise science experiments were automatically turned off. The exact cause is unknown as attitude sensors went back to normal before telemetry measurements could be sampled, but it may have been an Earth-sensor malfunction or a collision with a small unidentified object which temporarily caused the spacecraft to lose Sun lock. A similar experience happened on September 29 at 14:34 UTC. Again, all sensors went back to normal before it could be determined which axis had lost lock. By this date, the Earth sensor brightness indication had essentially gone to zero. This time, however, telemetry data indicated that the Earth-brightness measurement had increased to the nominal value for that point in the trajectory. [16] : 113–114 

Solar panel output

On October 31, the output from one solar panel (with solar sail attached) deteriorated abruptly. It was diagnosed as a partial short circuit in the panel. As a precaution, the cruise science instruments were turned off. A week later, the panel resumed normal function, and cruise science instruments were turned back on. The panel permanently failed on November 15, but Mariner 2 was close enough to the Sun that one panel could supply adequate power; thus, the cruise science experiments were left active. [16] : 114 

Encounter with Venus

Mariner 2's flyby in spatial relation to later probes 11214 2023 956 Fig10 HTML.webp
Mariner 2's flyby in spatial relation to later probes

Mariner 2 was the first spacecraft to successfully encounter another planet, [3] passing as close as 34,773 kilometers (21,607 mi) to Venus after 110 days of flight on December 14, 1962. [4]

Post encounter

After encounter, cruise mode resumed. Spacecraft perihelion occurred on December 27 at a distance of 105,464,560 kilometers (65,532,640 mi). The last transmission from Mariner 2 was received on January 3, 1963, at 07:00 UTC, making the total time from launch to termination of the Mariner 2 mission 129 days. [34] After passing Venus, Mariner 2 entered heliocentric orbit. [2]

Results

The data produced during the flight consisted of two categories—viz., tracking data and telemetry data. [34] One particularly noteworthy piece of data gathered during the pioneering fly-by was the high temperature of the atmosphere, [35] measured to be 500  °C (773  K ; 932  °F ). [35] Various properties of the solar wind were also measured for the first time. [35]

Scientific observations

Radiometric scanning of Venus Mariner 2 radiometric scans.png
Radiometric scanning of Venus
A print-out of data from the flyby Mariner 2 venus data.jpg
A print-out of data from the flyby

The microwave radiometer made three scans of Venus in 35 minutes on December 14, 1962, starting at 18:59 UTC. [24] The first scan was made on the dark side, the second was near the terminator, and the third was located on the light side. [24] [36] The scans with the 19 mm band revealed peak temperatures of 490 ± 11 K (216.9 ± 11.0 °C; 422.3 ± 19.8 °F) on the dark side, 595 ± 12 K near the terminator, and 511 ± 14 K on the light side. [37] It was concluded that there is no significant difference in temperature across Venus. [24] [36] However, the results suggest a limb darkening, an effect which presents cooler temperatures near the edge of the planetary disk and higher temperatures near the center. [22] [23] [24] [36] [37] [38] This was evidence for the theory that the Venusian surface was extremely hot and the atmosphere optically thick. [24] [36] [37]

The infrared radiometer showed that the 8.4 μm and 10.4 μm radiation temperatures were in agreement with radiation temperatures obtained from Earth-based measurements. [26] There was no systematic difference between the temperatures measured on the light side and dark side of the planet, which was also in agreement with Earth-based measurements. [26] The limb darkening effect that the microwave radiometer detected was also present in the measurements by both channels of the infrared radiometer. [26] [36] [38] The effect was only slightly present in the 10.4 μm channel but was more pronounced in the 8.4 μm channel. [36] The 8.4 μm channel also showed a slight phase effect. The phase effect indicated that if a greenhouse effect existed, heat was transported in an efficient manner from the light side to the dark side of the planet. [36] The 8.4 μm and 10.4 μm showed equal radiation temperatures, indicating that the limb darkening effect would appear to come from a cloud structure rather than the atmosphere. [26] Thus, if the measured temperatures were actually cloud temperatures instead of surface temperatures, then these clouds would have to be quite thick. [25] [36] [38]

The magnetometer detected a persistent interplanetary magnetic field varying between 2 γ and 10 γ (nanotesla), which agrees with prior Pioneer 5 observations from 1960. This also means that interplanetary space is rarely empty or field-free. [27] The magnetometer could detect changes of about 4 γ on any of the axes, but no trends above 10 γ were detected near Venus, nor were fluctuations seen like those that appear at Earth's magnetospheric termination. This means that Mariner 2 found no detectable magnetic field near Venus, although that did not necessarily mean that Venus had none. [36] [39] However, if Venus had a magnetic field, then it would have to be at least smaller than 1/10 the magnetic field of the Earth. [39] [40] In 1980, Pioneer 12 indeed showed that Venus has a small weak magnetic field. [41]

The Anton type 213 Geiger-Müller tube performed as expected. [42] The average rate was 0.6 counts per second. Increases in its counting rate were larger and more frequent than for the two larger tubes, since it was more sensitive to particles of lower energy. [16] It detected seven small solar bursts of radiation during September and October and 2 during November and December. [43] The absence of a detectable magnetosphere was also confirmed by the tube; it detected no radiation belt at Venus similar to that of Earth. The count rate would have increased by 104, but no change was measured. [16] [44]

It was also shown that in interplanetary space, the solar wind streams continuously, [32] [45] confirming a prediction by Eugene Parker, [46] and the cosmic dust density is much lower than the near-Earth region. [47] Improved estimates of Venus' mass and the value of the Astronomical Unit were made. Also, research, which was later confirmed by Earth-based radar and other explorations, suggested that Venus rotates very slowly and in a direction opposite that of the Earth. [48]

See also

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Venera 1, also known as Venera-1VA No.2 and occasionally in the West as Sputnik 8 was the first spacecraft to perform an interplanetary flight and the first to fly past Venus, as part of the Soviet Union's Venera programme. Launched in February 1961, it flew past Venus on 19 May of the same year; however, radio contact with the probe was lost before the flyby, resulting in it returning no data.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ranger 5</span> Failed NASA lunar impactor (1962)

Ranger 5 was a spacecraft of the Ranger program designed to transmit pictures of the lunar surface to Earth stations during a period of 10 minutes of flight prior to impacting on the Moon, to rough-land a seismometer capsule on the Moon, to collect gamma-ray data in flight, to study radar reflectivity of the lunar surface, and to continue testing of the Ranger program for development of lunar and interplanetary spacecraft. Due to an unknown malfunction, the spacecraft ran out of power and ceased operation. It passed within 725 km of the Moon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cosmic Background Explorer</span> Historic NASA cosmology mission

The Cosmic Background Explorer, also referred to as Explorer 66, was a NASA satellite dedicated to cosmology, which operated from 1989 to 1993. Its goals were to investigate the cosmic microwave background radiation of the universe and provide measurements that would help shape our understanding of the cosmos.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Venera 3</span> Soviet Venus space probe

Venera 3 was a Venera program space probe that was built and launched by the Soviet Union to explore the surface of Venus. It was launched on 16 November 1965 at 04:19 UTC from Baikonur, Kazakhstan, USSR. The probe comprised an entry probe, designed to enter the Venus atmosphere and parachute to the surface, and a carrier/flyby spacecraft, which carried the entry probe to Venus and also served as a communications relay for the entry probe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Microwave radiometer</span> Tool measuring EM radiation at 0.3–300-GHz frequency

A microwave radiometer (MWR) is a radiometer that measures energy emitted at one millimeter-to-metre wavelengths (frequencies of 0.3–300 GHz) known as microwaves. Microwave radiometers are very sensitive receivers designed to measure thermally-emitted electromagnetic radiation. They are usually equipped with multiple receiving channels to derive the characteristic emission spectrum of planetary atmospheres, surfaces or extraterrestrial objects. Microwave radiometers are utilized in a variety of environmental and engineering applications, including remote sensing, weather forecasting, climate monitoring, radio astronomy and radio propagation studies.

<i>Pioneer 5</i> NASA interplanetary mission (1960)

Pioneer 5 was a spin-stabilized space probe in the NASA Pioneer program used to investigate interplanetary space between the orbits of Earth and Venus. It was launched on 11 March 1960 from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 17A at 13:00:00 UTC with an on-orbit dry mass of 43 kilograms (95 lb). It was a 0.66 metres diameter sphere with 1.4 metres span across its four solar panels and achieved a solar orbit of 0.806 × 0.995 AU.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Venera 10</span> Space probe

Venera 10, or 4V-1 No. 661, was a Soviet uncrewed space mission to Venus. It consisted of an orbiter and a lander. It was launched on June 14, 1975, 03:00:31 UTC and had a mass of 5033 kg (11096 lb).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pioneer Venus Multiprobe</span> NASA atmospheric mission to Venus (1978)

The Pioneer Venus Multiprobe, also known as Pioneer Venus 2 or Pioneer 13, was a spacecraft launched in 1978 to explore Venus as part of NASA's Pioneer program. This part of the mission included a spacecraft bus which was launched from Earth carrying one large and three smaller probes, which after separating penetrated the Venusian atmosphere at a different location, returning data as they descended into the planet's thick atmosphere. The entry occurred on December 9, 1978.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar Orbiter</span> European space-based solar observatory

The Solar Orbiter (SolO) is a Sun-observing probe developed by the European Space Agency (ESA) with a National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) contribution. Solar Orbiter, designed to obtain detailed measurements of the inner heliosphere and the nascent solar wind, will also perform close observations of the polar regions of the Sun which is difficult to do from Earth. These observations are important in investigating how the Sun creates and controls its heliosphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atlas-Agena</span> American expendable launch system

The Atlas-Agena was an American expendable launch system derived from the SM-65 Atlas missile. It was a member of the Atlas family of rockets, and was launched 109 times between 1960 and 1978. It was used to launch the first five Mariner uncrewed probes to the planets Venus and Mars, and the Ranger and Lunar Orbiter uncrewed probes to the Moon. The upper stage was also used as an uncrewed orbital target vehicle for the Gemini crewed spacecraft to practice rendezvous and docking. However, the launch vehicle family was originally developed for the Air Force and most of its launches were classified DoD payloads.

Microwave Radiometer (<i>Juno</i>) Instrument observing deep into Jupiters atmosphere

Microwave Radiometer (MWR) is an instrument on the Juno orbiter sent to planet Jupiter. MWR is a multi-wavelength microwave radiometer for making observations of Jupiter's deep atmosphere. MWR can observe radiation from 1.37 to 50 cm in wavelength, from 600 MHz to 22 GHz in frequencies. This supports its goal of observing the previously unseen atmospheric features and chemical abundances hundreds of miles or kilometers into Jupiter's atmosphere. MWR is designed to detect six different frequencies in that range using separate antennas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nimbus 4</span> Former U.S. meteorological satellite

Nimbus 4 was a meteorological satellite. It was the fourth in a series of the Nimbus program.

NOAA-10, known as NOAA-G before launch, was an American weather satellite operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) for use in the National Environmental Satellite Data and Information Service (NESDIS). It was the third of the Advanced TIROS-N series of satellites. The satellite design provided an economical and stable Sun-synchronous platform for advanced operational instruments to measure the atmosphere of Earth, its surface and cloud cover, and the near-space environment.

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