The Mars program was a series of uncrewed spacecraft launched by the Soviet Union between 1960 and 1973. The spacecraft were intended to explore Mars, and included flyby probes, landers and orbiters.
Early Mars spacecraft were small, and launched by Molniya rockets. Starting with two failures in 1969, the heavier Proton-K rocket was used to launch larger 5 tonne spacecraft, consisting of an orbiter and a lander to Mars. The orbiter bus design was likely somewhat rushed into service and immature,[ citation needed ] considering that it performed very unreliably in the Venera variant after 1975. This reliability problem was common to much Soviet space hardware from the late 1960s and early 1970s and was largely corrected with a deliberate policy, implemented in the mid-1970s, of consolidating (or "debugging") existing designs rather than introducing new ones. The names of the "Mars" missions do not need to be translated, as the word "Mars" is spelled and pronounced approximately the same way in English and Russian.
In addition to the Mars program, the Soviet Union also sent a probe to Mars as part of the Zond program; Zond 2, however it failed en route. Two more spacecraft were sent during the Phobos program; both failed. In 1996, Russia launched Mars 96, its first interplanetary mission since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, however it failed to depart Earth orbit.
The first Soviet attempts to send a probe to Mars were the two Mars 1M spacecraft, which each had a mass of about 650 kg. Both were launched in 1960 and failed to achieve orbit. [1] The spacecraft were dubbed Marsnik by the Western media.
Public name | Internal name | Mission | Launch date | Carrier rocket | Outcome | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mars 1960A | 1M No.1 | Flyby | 10 October 1962 | Molniya | Failure | Also known as Marsnik 1 in the West, it was destroyed in a launch failure caused by upper stage malfunction |
Mars 1960B | 1M No.2 | Flyby | 14 October 1962 | Molniya | Failure | Also known as Marsnik 2 in the West, it was destroyed in a launch failure caused by oxidizer leak in the upper stage |
Mars 1 was launched in 1962 but failed en route to Mars. Two other Soviet launches at around the same time, Mars 2MV-4 No.1 and Mars 2MV-3 No.1 were 900-kilogram (2,000 lb) spacecraft, however both failed to leave Earth orbit due to problems with the upper stages of their carrier rockets.
Public name | Internal name | Mission | Launch date | Carrier rocket | Outcome | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sputnik 22 | 2MV-4 No.1 | Flyby | 24 October 1962 | Molniya | Failure | Exploded during trans-Mars injection burn. Debris fell back to Earth until 26 February 1963 [2] |
Mars 1 | 2MV-4 No.2 | Flyby | 1 November 1962 | Molniya | Failure | Contact lost en route to Mars on 21 March 1963, though it did manage to fly past the planet at a distance of 100,000 km on 19 June 1963 without sending any scientific data [3] |
Sputnik 24 | 2MV-3 No.1 | Flyby | 4 November 1962 | Molniya | Failure | Trans-Mars injection burn failed due to damage sustained at T+260 seconds after launch. Debris fell back to Earth until 19 January 1963 [4] |
Mars 2M No.521 and Mars 2M No.522, known in the West as Mars 1969A and B, were heavier spacecraft with masses of 5 tonnes (4.9 long tons; 5.5 short tons). They were launched by Proton-K rockets, and consisted of orbiters. Both were destroyed during launch.
The Mars 4M spacecraft; Mars 2 and Mars 3 missions consisted of identical spacecraft, each with an orbiter and an attached lander, which became the first spacecraft to reach the surface of Mars.
The orbiters' primary scientific objectives were to image the Martian surface and clouds, determine the temperature on Mars, study the topography, composition and physical properties of the surface, measure properties of the atmosphere, monitor the solar wind and the interplanetary and Martian magnetic fields, and act as communications relays to send signals from the landers to Earth.
Both landers had a small Mars rover, PrOP-M, on board, which would move across the surface on skis while connected to the lander with a 15-meter umbilical. Two small metal rods were used for autonomous obstacle avoidance, as radio signals from Earth would take too long to drive the rovers using remote control. Each rover had both a densitometer and a dynamic penetrometer, to test the density and the bearing strength of the soil. Because of the demise of the landers, neither rover saw action.
The Mars 2 and 3 orbiters sent back a large volume of data covering the period from December 1971 to March 1972, although transmissions continued through August. It was announced that Mars 2 and 3 had completed their missions by August 22, 1972, after 362 orbits completed by Mars 2 and 20 orbits by Mars 3. The probes sent back a total of 60 pictures. The images and data enabled creation of surface relief maps, and gave information on the Martian gravity and magnetic fields. [5]
Public name | Internal name | Mission | Launch date | Carrier rocket | Outcome | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mars 2 | 4M No.171 | Orbiter/ Lander | 19 May 1971 | Proton-K/D | Partial failure | Successfully inserted into a 1,380 x 24,940 km elliptical orbit on 27 November 1971. However, its lander crashed somewhere within Hellas Planitia ( 45°S30°W / 45°S 30°W ) [6] |
Mars 3 | 4M No.172 | Orbiter/ Lander | 28 May 1971 | Proton-K/D | Success | Successfully inserted into a 1,500 x 211,400 km elliptical orbit on 2 December 1971. Its lander became the first spacecraft to land intact on Mars, however contact lost just 110 seconds after touchdown on Ptolemaeus Crater ( 45°S202°E / 45°S 202°E ) [7] |
The Mars 3MS were orbiter-only spacecraft launched three times between 1971 and 1973. The first of which, Kosmos 419, was intended to become the first spacecraft to orbit Mars, beating NASA's Mariner 8 and Mariner 9, however it failed to leave low Earth orbit. [8] Two additional 3MS missions, Mars 4 and Mars 5, were launched in 1973 to act as communications relay for Mars 6 and 7.
Public name | Internal name | Mission | Launch date | Carrier rocket | Outcome | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kosmos 419 | 3MS No.170 | Orbiter | 10 May 1971 | Proton-K/D | Failure | Stranded in LEO after its Blok D stage malfunctioned. Reentered two days later on 12 May 1971 |
Mars 4 | 3MS No.52S | Orbiter | 21 July 1973 | Proton-K/D | Failure | Did not insert itself into orbit around Mars due to propulsion failure on 10 February 1974. Closest distance to the planet was 1,836 km and returned only 12 images back to Earth [5] [9] |
Mars 5 | 3MS No.53S | Orbiter | 25 July 1973 | Proton-K/D | Success | Successfully inserted into a 1,755 x 32,555 km elliptical orbit on 12 February 1974, returning 60 images of the planet's surface. [5] Collected data until it suffered a systems failure that ended the mission on 28 February 1974 [10] |
In 1973 the speed required to place a spacecraft in an interplanetary trajectory had to be increased. Thus the Proton could not deliver spacecraft with an orbiter and an attached lander to the necessary trajectory to reach Mars, as had been possible in 1971. To resolve this problem, four spacecraft were launched. The Mars 4 and 5 orbiters, which had been launched separately, were used to relay communications, and to complete mission objectives which would have been completed by landers. Two landers were launched with orbiter type buses (Mars 6 and 7), but without fuel to enter orbit of the Mars satellite.
Public name | Internal name | Mission | Launch date | Carrier rocket | Outcome | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mars 6 | 3MP No.50P | Flyby/ Lander | 5 August 1973 | Proton-K/D | Partial failure | Lander transmitted 224 seconds of (corrupted) atmospheric data before crash-landing on 12 March 1974. Landing coordinates were 23°54′S19°25′W / 23.90°S 19.42°W within Margaritifer Terra [11] |
Mars 7 | 3MP No.51P | Flyby/ Lander | 9 August 1973 | Proton-K/D | Failure | Missed Mars by 1,300 km on 9 March 1974 due to premature spacecraft separation. Intended landing coordinates were 50°S28°W / 50°S 28°W . Last contact with flyby bus on 25 March 1974 [12] |
The Mars 4NM and Mars 5NM projects would have seen heavier spacecraft launched by N1 rockets. They would have deployed heavy Marsokhod rovers onto the surface, and conducted sample return missions. The N1 failed on all four of its test flights, and was never used to launch any Mars spacecraft. [13]
Mars 5M (Mars 79) was a sample return mission developed in 1977 to be double launched in 1979 by Proton launchers and then docked in Earth orbit for a joint flight of orbital and return modules to Mars. The project was canceled due to the low reliability of the Igla automatic docking system. [14]
The Mariner program was conducted by the American space agency NASA to explore other planets. Between 1962 and late 1973, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) designed and built 10 robotic interplanetary probes named Mariner to explore the inner Solar System – visiting the planets Venus, Mars and Mercury for the first time, and returning to Venus and Mars for additional close observations.
The Mars Observer spacecraft, also known as the Mars Geoscience/Climatology Orbiter, was a robotic space probe launched by NASA on September 25, 1992, to study the Martian surface, atmosphere, climate and magnetic field. On August 21, 1993, during the interplanetary cruise phase, communication with the spacecraft was lost, three days prior to the probe's orbital insertion. Attempts to re-establish communications with the spacecraft were unsuccessful.
Kosmos 21 was a Soviet spacecraft. This mission has been tentatively identified by NASA as a technology test of the Venera series space probes. It may have been an attempted Venus impact, presumably similar to the later Kosmos 27 mission, or it may have been intended from the beginning to remain in geocentric orbit. In any case, the spacecraft never left Earth orbit after insertion by the Molniya launcher. The orbit decayed on 14 November 1963, three days after launch.
Luna 24 was a robotic probe of the Soviet Union's Luna programme. The 24th mission of the Luna series of spacecraft, the mission of the Luna 24 probe was the third Soviet mission to return lunar soil samples from the Moon. The probe landed in Mare Crisium. The mission returned 170.1 g (6.00 oz) of lunar samples to the Earth on 22 August 1976.
Kosmos 27, also known as Zond 3MV-1 No.3 was a space mission intended as a Venus impact probe. The spacecraft was launched by a Molniya 8K78 carrier rocket from Baikonur. The Blok L stage and probe reached Earth orbit successfully, but the attitude control system failed to operate.
Mars 4, also known as 3MS No.52S was a Soviet spacecraft intended to explore Mars. A 3MS spacecraft launched as part of the Mars programme, it was intended to enter orbit around Mars in 1974. However, computer problems prevented orbital insertion from occurring.
Mars 5, also known as 3MS No.53S was a Soviet spacecraft launched to explore Mars. A 3MS spacecraft launched as part of the Mars programme, it successfully entered orbit around Mars in 1974. However, it failed a few weeks later.
Mars 6, also known as 3MP No.50P was a Soviet spacecraft launched to explore Mars. A 3MP bus spacecraft launched as part of the Mars program, it consisted of a lander, and a coast stage with instruments to study Mars as it flew past.
Mars 7, also known as 3MP No.51P was a Soviet spacecraft launched in 1973 to explore Mars. A 3MP bus spacecraft which comprised the final mission of the Mars programme, it consisted of a lander and a coast stage with instruments to study Mars as it flew past. Due to a malfunction, the lander failed to perform a maneuver necessary to enter the Martian atmosphere, missing the planet and remaining in heliocentric orbit along with the coast stage.
The Mars 2 was an uncrewed space probe of the Mars program, a series of uncrewed Mars landers and orbiters launched by the Soviet Union beginning 19 May 1971. The Mars 2 and Mars 3 missions consisted of identical spacecraft, each with an orbiter and an attached lander. The orbiter is identical to the Venera 9 bus. The type of bus/orbiter is the 4MV. They were launched by a Proton-K heavy launch vehicle with a Blok D upper stage. The lander of Mars 2 became the first human-made object to reach the surface of Mars, although the landing system failed and the lander was lost.
Mars 3 was a robotic space probe of the Soviet Mars program, launched May 28, 1971, nine days after its twin spacecraft Mars 2. The probes were identical robotic spacecraft launched by Proton-K rockets with a Blok D upper stage, each consisting of an orbiter and an attached lander. After the Mars 2 lander crashed on the Martian surface, the Mars 3 lander became the first spacecraft to attain a soft landing on Mars, on December 2, 1971. It failed 110 seconds after landing, having transmitted only a gray image with no details. The Mars 2 orbiter and Mars 3 orbiter continued to circle Mars and transmit images back to Earth for another eight months.
The planet Mars has been explored remotely by spacecraft. Probes sent from Earth, beginning in the late 20th century, have yielded a large increase in knowledge about the Martian system, focused primarily on understanding its geology and habitability potential. Engineering interplanetary journeys is complicated and the exploration of Mars has experienced a high failure rate, especially the early attempts. Roughly sixty percent of all spacecraft destined for Mars failed before completing their missions, with some failing before their observations could even begin. Some missions have been met with unexpected success, such as the twin Mars Exploration Rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, which operated for years beyond their specification.
Kosmos 419, also known as 3MS No.170 was a failed Soviet spacecraft intended to visit Mars. The spacecraft was launched on 10 May 1971, however, due to an upper stage malfunction, it failed to depart low Earth orbit.
A Moon landing or lunar landing is the arrival of a spacecraft on the surface of the Moon, including both crewed and robotic missions. The first human-made object to touch the Moon was Luna 2 in 1959.
A Mars landing is a landing of a spacecraft on the surface of Mars. Of multiple attempted Mars landings by robotic, uncrewed spacecraft, ten have had successful soft landings. There have also been studies for a possible human mission to Mars including a landing, but none have been attempted.
Kosmos 167, or 4V-1 No.311, was a 1967 Soviet spacecraft intended to explore Venus. A spacecraft launched as part of the Venera programme, Kosmos 167 was intended to land on Venus but never departed low Earth orbit due to a launch failure.