The Bungdang (Korean:붕당;Hanja:朋黨) refers to political factionalism that was characteristic of middle and late Joseon. Throughout the dynasty,various regional and ideological factions struggled for dominance in the political system.
During the 15th and 16th century,tensions between the Hungu faction in the capital and the Yeongnam-based Sarim faction dominated national politics,culminating in a series of four bloody purges between 1498 and 1545,in which the Sarim was persecuted by the Hungu. Following these setbacks,the Sarim faction withdrew to rural provinces where they maintained their power base and ideological continuity through seowon (private institutions which combined the functions of a Confucian shrine and a preparatory academy for the civil service examinations) and hyangyak (a system of social contract that gave local autonomy to villages). Eventually,the Hungu faction declined without an ideological successor while the Sarim faction emerged as the dominant faction during the reign of Seonjo.
In the late 16th century,a nationwide split occurred within the Sarim between the Western faction (Seoin) and Eastern faction (Dongin),composed mainly of the younger generation. Political divisions intensified even further as the Easterners in turn split between the hard-line Northern faction (Bukin) and the moderate Southern faction (Namin),[1] and the Westerners split between the Old Learning (Noron) and the Young Learning (Soron). These four factions are sometimes known as sasaek ("four colors").[2] The Northerners later split into the Greater Northern and Lesser Northern factions,with the Great Northerners further splitting into three other factions. The faction names often derived from the relative location of their leader's house.
These divisions grew out of allegiance to different philosophical schools and regional differences. For instance,the Easterners were largely Yeongnam-based;as for its subfactions,the Southerners were mainly followers of Yi Hwang,while the Northerners coalesced around the school of Jo Sik. The Gyeonggi and Chungcheong-based Westerners were largely followers of Yi I;followers of Seong Hon formed the Soron,while Song Si-yeol's followers became the Noron. These divisions were often further driven by questions concerning royal succession or appropriate royal conduct. For example,the split between the Northerners and Southerners was driven by debate over the proper successor to Seonjo. The Northerners supported Gwanghaegun;accordingly,they flourished under his reign (1608–1623),but were swept from power by the Westerners after the Injo's succession.
Under the reigns of Yeongjo and Jeongjo in the 18th century,a strict policy of equality was pursued with no faction being favoured over another.[3] However,during Jeongjo's reign,strife re-emerged as the ruling Noron split further between the Byeokpa and Sipa,two groups which cut across the earlier factions and differed in their attitudes concerning Yeongjo's execution of his son,who was also Jeongjo's biological father. Eventually,byeokpa was eliminated by sipa in 1804. After that,the factions that are formed by philosophical and political beliefs never appeared. And this is known as the end of 붕당(political faction).[4] After the elimination of byeokpa,the 19th century joseon started to crumble,as Joseon politics shifted as in-law families rather than scholarly factions came to dominate the throne. For most of the 19th century,the Andong Kim clan was in control of the government;however,there was a brief interlude in which control shifted to the Pungyang Jo clan.
During the reign of Gojong,real power initially belonged to his father Grand Internal Prince Heungseon,who on one hand sought to reform corrupt state institutions but on the other hand pursued a policy of isolationism,opposing the opening of the country to Western and Japanese influences. From the 1870s onwards,Queen Min (known posthumously as Empress Myeongseong) became more dominant and pursued a policy of cautious modernisation and opening up. Her dominance was opposed by reactionaries and progressives alike. These factional struggles led to the Imo Incident and Gapsin Coup,as well as increased foreign interference in Korean affairs.
History
Rise of sarim
The Joseon Dynasty,which was founded in 1392 by the Reversal Revolution,established a new governing order with a centralized yangban bureaucracy. During the period before and after the opening of the Joseon Dynasty,socio-economic changes occurred in which small and medium-sized landlords expanded.
The establishment of the yangban bureaucracy reflected it in the operation of the political system. Those with small and medium-sized economic bases in various places have usually obtained the status qualification to become government officials and can enter central relations at any time through tests,greatly increasing the functionality of local communities as bureaucratic sources.
However,in the early days of the dynasty,the Yangban bureaucracy naturally created a class that established a hereditary status among the Yangban aristocrats,and commerce began to develop significantly based on improved agricultural economic power after the mid-15th century.
On the other hand,internationally,trade with China,Japan,and ryuku has become active,and opportunities to acquire wealth have increased significantly compared to before.
Under the conditions of this new era,Hungu ministers and their relatives were eager to expand their private economic base and pursued a wide range of commercial gains through international trade,grain trade,and cotton collection in addition to farm expansion.
They increased their wealth by using low-ranking officials in the center and magistrate and local influential people in the provinces.
In this trend,exploitation of the general public was also carried out severely,and phenomena such as the inclusion of military service and the embankment of tribute appeared.
Meanwhile,in the Joseon Dynasty,the heirs of small and medium-sized landlords steadily went through the intellectualization process through education such as Hyanggyo(local Confucian schools),a public confucian schools,and Seojae,a private school,and raised their political consciousness even if they did not have any political powers.
Thus,the term Sarim,was called after the end of the 15th century to refer to many seonbis of locals.[5]
Sarim's attempt on gaining central political powers
Whenever there was an opportunity to enter the center,the Sarim forces criticized the Hungu faction's dismissal and exploitation and stop their local infrastructure through activities based on Neo-Confucianism's public doctrine.
Four sahwa incidents occurred in the 16th century because the Hungu forces,who felt threatened by these challenges of the Sarim forces,imposed political retaliation.
However,despite the repeated sahwas,the Sarim forces were not easily defeated. From the end of the Jungjong's reign,they continued to expand their social and political powers by expanding the foundation for Seowon aimed at educating Neo-Confucian ideology.
Against this background,in the early years of King Seonjo's accession,Sarim-affiliated people were able to make significant inroads into the court.[6]
Beginning of philosophical factions
After the Hungu lost powers,The Sarim forces then clashed over the eradication of the remnants of the old Chokshin political system of Hungu,with the two affiliates taking different positions.
Noh Sung-han Seonbi Organization,who was called Jeonbae,was in a moderate position,while the hu bae Seonbi Organization was dissatisfied with the fact that he tried to tolerate Shim Eui-gyeom,who opposed Kim Hyo-won's recommendation to court.
As a hubae,Shim Eui-gyeom tried to protect the people of the Sarim community the previous day,but he argued that he could not clear the remnants of Chuckshin system if he accepted him because he was associated with Chuckshin.
This confrontation within Sarim,which occurred due to differences in political decisions and views of the situation,eventually resulted in the division of the younger generation into the younger generation and the younger generation. Those who tolerated Shim Eui-gyeom became westerner And those who supported Kim Hyo-won became Easterners.
At that time,the Easterners were usually composed of philosophers of Yi Hwang and Jo Sik,and with the participation of Yi i of the Westerners,academic connectivity was enhanced.
Easterners and Westerners,the first philosophical factions in Sarim,had strong academic connectivity from the beginning,and a unique political faction of Joseon was formed.[7]
Decline of factions
By the end of the 17th century,Bungdang politics had shown its limits. In other words,as the consciousness of coexistence between the bungdang collapsed,no matter which political faction,the tendency of the one-party premise was strong,and the political conflict intensified.
In this new situation,the proportion of chokshin,which had been greatly suppressed in the conventional bungdang politics,rose again,and powerful seonbi clans centered on it was formed to replace bungdang.
Seowon,which was an important foundation of Bungdang politics,was often confused with the shrine,which enshrines the ancestors of individual families,and was often unable to perform its original political function as a center of public opinion.
In addition,as political conflict became more intense,disruptive political phenomena such as spying,treasonous manipulation,and active retaliation such as death continued.
Although the phony of the bungdang continued,in reality,the tendency to prioritize the position of individuals or clans was noticeable,and even the local system was operated around the relatives of powerful clans or the royal family,so it was far from reflecting Sarim's public opinion.
At Sukjong's era Westerner's division into Noron and Soron occurred due to the transformation of Baengdang politics,and the frequent political upheaval of Hwanguk between the two factions and the Southerner shows the political turmoil of this period.
As political positions became extremely unstable due to frequent repatriation,political factions such as Noron,Soron,and Southerner supported each other's specific successors to the throne,and even revolted when they failed.[8]
Tangpyeong
The Tangpyeong policy,which was implemented during the reign of King Yeongjo and King Jeongjo in the 18th century,was aimed at overcoming these political evils. The Tangpyeong policy aimed to correct the evils of Bungdang politics with the aim of directly presiding over all political affairs while denying the existence of Bungdang.
However,King Yeongjo's Tangpyeong policy focused on harmony between the bungdangs and pursued a transitional method called "Joje Bunghap," while King Jeongjo showed a toughness that did not tolerate anything other than loyalty to the monarch.
Meanwhile,monarchs who pursued the Tangpyeong policy showed the development of the times,suggesting the protection of small people as a new task of the monarchy. But because of king's strong policies on not tolerating who were not royal,the philosophical bond inside factions weakened. which resulted in few powerful clans taking over the central powers if the king was not stron enough.[9]
End of bungdang
In the 19th century,when monarchs ascended the throne one after another at a young age,they colluded and emerged as a reactionary political form that suppressed monarchy.
The hereditary politics that continued in the early 19th century developed around the Noron's powerful clans. Ironically,they used their maternal relationship with the royal family (Chuckshin system) as a means of securing or maintaining a power base.[10]
In the South Korean TV series Yi San (2007),the Noron faction is portrayed as the chief enemy of King Jeongjo (personal name Yi San) and the antagonist of the series. It made his father,Crown Prince Sado,die while fallen from grace and tried to shame and/or kill Yi San throughout his life and reign;the Soron and Namin are mentioned in the dialogue. The series also portrays the split within the Noron faction during Jeongjo's reign and implies that it was a contributing factor to its political defeat.
Joseon,officially Great Joseon State,was a dynastic kingdom of Korea that existed for 505 years. It was founded by Taejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897. The kingdom was founded following the aftermath of the overthrow of Goryeo in what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on,Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul. The kingdom's northernmost borders were expanded to the natural boundaries at the rivers of Amnok and Tuman through the subjugation of the Jurchens.
Yeongjo,personal name Yi Geum,was the 21st monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He was the second son of King Sukjong by his concubine,Royal Noble Consort Suk of the Haeju Choe clan. Before ascending to power,he was known as Prince Yeoning. His life was characterized by political infighting and resentment due to his biological mother's low-born origins.
Sukjong,personal name Yi Sun,was the 19th monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. A skilled legislator,he caused multiple changes in political power throughout his reign,by switching among the Namin (Southerners),Seoin (Westerners),Soron and Noron political factions.
The politics of the Joseon dynasty,which ruled Korea from 1392 to 1897,were governed by the reigning ideology of Korean Confucianism,a form of Neo-Confucianism. Political struggles were common between different factions of the scholar-officials. Purges frequently resulted in leading political figures being sent into exile or condemned to death.
The Sarim,or "forest of scholars",was a powerful faction of literati who emerged in the Early Joseon period under Gil Jae,and would later come to dominate Middle and Late Joseon politics in Korea. After outliving the Hungu faction,the Sarim faction experienced several breakups during and after the reign of King Seonjo (1567–1608) into the Western and Eastern factions;these factions would also experience their very own splits in the coming years. By the 19th century,Joseon court politics would see a shift in control from scholarly factions towards the 'in-law families';for most of the 19th century,the Jangdong branch of the Andong Kim clan was in control of the government.
Seonjo,personal name Yi Yeon,was the 14th monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He was known for promoting Confucianism and attempting reforms at the beginning of his reign. However,he later gained infamy from the political discord and his incompetent leadership during the Japanese invasions of Korea.
Jeongjo,personal name Yi San,sometimes called Jeongjo the Great,was the 22nd monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He was the second son of Crown Prince Sado and Lady Hyegyeong,and succeeded his grandfather,King Yeongjo,in 1776. Today,Jeongjo is remembered for his various efforts to reform and improve the nation.
Gyeongjong,personal name Yi Yun,was the 20th monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He was the eldest son of King Sukjong by his concubine,Royal Noble Consort Hui of the Indong Jang clan.
Yi San,also known as Lee San,Wind of the Palace,is a 2007 South Korean historical drama,starring Lee Seo-jin and Han Ji-min. It aired on MBC from September 17,2007 to June 16,2008 on Mondays and Tuesdays at 21:55. The series was directed by Lee Byung-hoon,who also created the award-winning television series Dae Jang Geum.
This article explains the history of the Joseon dynasty,which ruled Korea from 1392 to 1897.
Queen Jeongsun,of the Gyeongju Kim clan,was a posthumous name bestowed to the wife and second queen consort of Yi Geum,King Yeongjo,the 21st Joseon monarch. She was queen consort of Joseon from 1759 until her husband's death in 1776,after which she was honoured as Queen Dowager Yesun (예순왕대비) during the reign of her step-grandson Yi San,King Jeongjo and as Grand Queen Dowager Yesun (예순대왕대비) during the reign of her step great-grandson Yi Gong,King Sunjo.
Literati purges is a translation of the Korean term sahwa,whose literal meaning is "scholars' calamity." It refers to a series of political purges in the late 15th and the 16th centuries in which Sarim scholars suffered persecution at the hands of their political rivals.
The rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip in 1589,known in Korean as the Gichuk oksa,was one of the bloodiest political purges in Korea's Joseon Dynasty. Its scale was greater than all four of the notorious literati purges combined. At that time Joseon politics was dominated by conflict between Eastern and Western factions. Neo-Confucian scholar and Easterner,Jeong Yeo-rip was accused of high treason,after which as many as 1,000 Easterners were killed or exiled.
Yi Sanhae was a Korean politician,scholar,writer and poet of the Joseon period who came from the Hansan Yi clan. He served as the Chief State Councilor of Joseon from 1590 to 1592 and 1600. Yi was a member of the political faction the Easterners and when this split into the Northerners and Southerners,Yi became leader of the Northerners faction.
The Easterners were a political faction of the Korean Joseon dynasty. This faction appeared during the reign of Seonjo of Joseon in sixteenth-century Korea,in 1575. Originating from friends of Gim Hyowon,they soon encompassed most of the disciples of Jo Sik and Yi Hwang,conflicting with Yi I and his followers,who formed the core of the Westerners. Though emerging as the dominant faction in the 1580s,it nearly collapsed at the suicide of Jeong Yeorip and the succeeding bloodshed in 1589. After Westerner Jeong Cheol was exiled for attempting to make Prince Gwanghae the Crown Prince,the Easterners divided into Northerners and Southerners.
The Westerners was a political faction that dominated Korea in the 17th century. In 1575,the Sarim split into the Easterners and Westerners. The Westerners remained the main contender of the Easterners in the Seonjo age.
Yi In-jwa's Rebellion,also known as the Musin Rebellion,after the name of the year in which it occurred in the sexagenary calendar,was an attempted coup d'état in March 1728 by a coalition of the radical faction of the Namin and the excluded Soron faction. After the death of King Gyeongjong and the ascension of King Yeongjo to the throne,the position of the Noron faction was restored,and Soron,who had instigated the rebellion under the pretext of protecting King Gyeongjong,was punished and excluded from power. Shortly after ascending to the throne,Yeongjo pursued a policy of equal recruitment,believing that factional strife was detrimental to the country's development. In response,the radical faction of the Soron group justified their rebellion by raising suspicions about the circumstances of King Gyeongjong's death and claiming that King Yeongjo was not the legitimate heir of King Sukjong,thereby securing their power. The rebellion began on March 15 when Yi In-jwa captured Cheongju Castle. The rebel forces,marching toward Hanyang,were defeated by the royal army,and the support from the Yeong and Honam regions was also suppressed by local forces,leading to the suppression of the rebellion.
The Soron was a political faction of the Joseon Dynasty. The faction was consisted of the opponents of Song Siyeol after the split of the Westerners. Their leader was Yun Jeung,who died in 1714. They were favored by King Gyeongjong,who died in October 1724. In December 1728,King Yeongjo was accused of poisoning King Gyeongjong. This led to the Musin Revolt in Jeolla Province. The rebels enjoyed support from people in Gyeonggi Province and Chungcheong Province.
The Noron were a political faction of the Joseon Dynasty in Korea. They consisted of the supporters of Song Siyeol after the split of the Westerners. The Noron suffered setbacks with Kim Seok-ju's death in 1684 and Song's execution in 1689. In 1701,Queen Inhyeon,who favored the Noron,died. They were favored by King Yeongjo,who came to the throne in 1724.
The Southerners were a political faction of the Joseon Dynasty. The faction was created after the split of the Easterners in 1591 by Yi Sanhae's opponents. Its leader was Ryu Seong-ryong,who died in 1607. Leader Heo Mok was Left Prime Minister from 1675 to 1678. Leader Yun Hyu was executed in 1680. They supported Jang Huibin,queen consort of Sukjong of Joseon from 1688 to 1694. The faction continued to exist until the 18th century.
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