| Pseudowintera axillaris | |
|---|---|
 | |
Scientific classification  | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Magnoliids |
| Order: | Canellales |
| Family: | Winteraceae |
| Genus: | Pseudowintera |
| Species: | P. axillaris |
| Binomial name | |
| Pseudowintera axillaris (J.R. Forst. & G. Forst.) Dandy | |
The Pseudowintera axillaris is a shrub like tree, endemic to New Zealand. They are members of the Winterace family and are known for their peppery taste, and glossy green leaves.
The Pseudowintera axillaris, or Lowland Horopito, is one of four Winteraceae species, endemic to New Zealand. It has many distinguishing features that can identify it from other Winteraceae species. [1] Growing up to 8 metres tall and a trunk up to 10 cm in diameter [2] this small shrub-like tree, prefers damper, cold, tree shaded locations found in New Zealand forests in the North Island and the northern parts of the South Island. [3] Distinguishing features of this plant include its dark green coloured leaves, and natural glossy wax that gives the underside a pale to glaucous but not white; midvein pale appearance. These leaves have smooth margins and unlike many other plant species, the P. axillaris usually has no red or brown blotches or discolouration. [4] Adult leaves can grow up to 6–10 cm long by 3–6 cm wide [5] and have red leaf stalks, with yellowish midribs, and smooth margins. [6] [1] Juvenile leaves have distinctive, white, net-like secondary veins on the upper surface. Another known feature of the P. axillaris is the peppery taste it upholds when chewing. The P. colorata is known for its extremely spicy peppery taste compared to that of a chilly, whereas the P. axillaris has a slight, pleasant peppery taste, known to keep plant grazing insects away. [7] The P. axillaris has very dark red – black branches, with the branchlets usually becoming more black in colour toward the leaves. It is considered to be a very primitive flowering plant, and is one of the more common of the four Pseudowintera species, after the P. colorata. [1] The flowers are small in size, 10mm across, [8] [bisexual] [6] on quite long stalks, and greenish yellow in colour. [1] They occur in clusters in the leaf axils or in the scars of fallen leaves. Petal numbers vary between 4-7 free petals, [1] [6] and calyx cup shaped. [2] The petals are 5-6mm long, narrow-oblong to narrow-obovate, apex obtuse. [6] Other parts of the flower are symmetrical [1] apex obtuse, carpels 1–6, stigma apical [6] very short stamens but many (6-20) [6] crowded around a few short ovaries [1] The Pseudowintera axillaris fruits are berries, one from each ovary [1] producing a 3-6-seeded fleshy globose to subglobose berry 5-6mm in diameter [6] orange to red when ripe. [1]
The Pseudowintera axillaris is endemic to New Zealand. [1] Included within the family of Winteraceae where many of these plant species are found in Southern North America, and temperate Asia. [2]
The Pseudowintera axillaris is commonly found in both the North and South Island, in Lowland and lower montane forests. From Kaitaia in the north down to the Marlborough sounds and the north west of the South Island. [1] They are quite popular just South of Auckland, Specifically in the Waitakere region, and within the Northern parts of the South Island. [3] The P. colorata and the P. axillaris are very similar in nature and are often found within the same locations and are quite common throughout New Zealand. They can live in unison with each other as competition is eliminated where the P. axillaris loves shaded, damp areas, and Is often more present within lowland montane forests, whereas the P. colorata prefers areas of higher light and are more frequent around the edges of these forests. They are highly adapted to their particular niche.
The Lowland Horopito favours colder and more shaded environments, where taller more invasive trees grow and provide a vegetative cover. New Zealand forests are known for their rich, nutrient dense soils, so the P. axillaris has learned to survive in conditions where this nutrient dense soil is present. The underlying factor here is that the P. axillaris species thrives where other taller plants flourish. This is due to the fact branches, leaves and twigs fall off these bigger trees and contribute to the nutrients of the soil below, creating a humus layer. The Humus layer is dark organic material that forms in soil as a result of decaying plants and even animals. This provides a stable and strong nutrient base for the P. axillaris to thrive and also offers a stable water supply where the shade offers dampness.
Flowers occur as auxiliary fascicles from spring (September) to early summer (December) and fruits ripen to red from late spring (October till January), persisting on the plant through till winter (June). [8] [1] The P. axillaris remains relatively still through the January and February months as seen on the phenology graph. [9] In a study of the reproductive ecology of the Pseudowintera axillaris it was found that this plant has a pollination system liable to change, relying on the transferral of pollen by Thrips obscuratus and small flies, as well as pollen being carried by wind. [10] Pseudowintera axillaris flowers remain on the plant for 7–11 days and the stigmatic crests are responsive in the course of early anthesis, secreting a small supply of nectar, during the last days of flowering the anthers shed pollen. When a thrips has finished feeding on one flower it will crawl to the next, this usually being in the same inflorescence or the same branch, by this system both early anthesis flowers holding nectar and late anthesis flowers containing pollen are visited. [10] These insect visits are few, and isolated plants bear very few fruits, along with low numbers of seed in each fruit. [11] Along with the entire genus Pseudowintera, Pseudowintera axillaris models high rates of self‐sterility which appears to take place uniformly at the zygotic stage of embryogeny. [12]
The Lowland Horopito favours cold, dark and damp locations, and are therefore found in higher frequencies throughout native New Zealand lowland forests. It is known that New Zealand forests are quite unique, where the actions of tectonism, volcanism, stratification, erosion, flooding and other naturally occurring processes all contribute to the production of soil development. We have harsh, however adaptable environments where soil is enriched with nutrients and provides a stable habitat for over 80% of New Zealand's native vascular plants. [13] These native species are also usually endemic to New Zealand as it provides such a specified location where adaptations occur to fit these environments and nowhere else. The P. axillaris is a plant species that prefers shaded environments, meaning that this species must rely more so on soil and water quality to survive and reproduce, as a fundamental part of plant survival being sunlight is reduced. Photosynthesis can occur at low rates with the help of nutrient dense soil, water and shade tolerance. The most important macronutrients needed for plant growth is Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K). Nitrogen or protein rich soils are often found where manures, food scraps, decay and green leaves are present. [14] This is why the Humus layer within Lower montane forests provides such a strong nutrient enriched base for shade loving plants.
The Pseudowintera species are not a threatened or endangered species as herbivore animals and insects do not appreciate the pungent, peppery taste given off the plant when eating. Both the P. colorata and P. axillaris have this aromatic effect. There are however the common animal species that do provide hazards and disadvantages for New Zealand's native plant species. Possums for example are a huge pest to New Zealand as they eat and damage the forest at every point, taking mainly leaves, buds and fruits, as well as scratching tree bark and breaking small branchlets. [15]
A common invasive species found in New Zealand's Lowland Forests are the Large Shrub Epiphytes. An Epiphyte is a plant that grows off another plant. Griselinia lucida is the most common of the Large Shrub Epiphytes and is distributed throughout both the North and South Island. Although these Epiphytes usually intend to exploit larger trees, their biggest threat to the Lowland Horopito is their large roots that overcome the water supply and soil nutrients. They exploit the habitat around them. [16]
A common parasite found in Lowland to Montane forests throughout the North Island is the Dactylanthus taylorii (Pua Reinga – Flower of the Underworld). This species takes a liking toward smaller tree species, like the Lowland Horopito, and therefore poses a threat to the Pseudowintera species, only in the North. The embryo root of a Dactylanthus seed exploits the slender root of its suitable host, by penetrating it, then gradually expands into a tube-like structure, eventually surrounding the host root. [16]
Due to the P. axillaris preferring cold, damp locations, it is often in competition with species of Fungi. As a result, the Winteraceae family has managed to adapt with an efficient built-in defence mechanism of a compound called Sesquiterpene Dialdehyde polygodial which has many biological purposes including anti-fungal properties. [17]
There are also many types of insects that use the Pseudowintera as a host plant. Plant-SyNZ gives a reliability score: 0-10. 10 indicating a strong association to the Pseudowintera axillaris. The below species all received a 10 [18]
| Group | Species | Location on Host |
|---|---|---|
| Lepidoptera: Tortricidae | Maoritenes cyclobathra (Moth) | Caterpillars tunnel into terminal young shoots |
| Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae | Aleyrodes fodiens (Whitefly) | Pits in leaf |
| Hymenoptera: Apidae | Apis mellifera (honeybee) | Nests above the ground in large holes in trees – adults collect and feed off pollen |
| Acari: Tenuipalpidae | Tenuipalpus antipodes Collyer (Mite) | Feeds on leaves – laid in crevices and cracks of shrub tree |
| Hemiptera: Coccidae | Inglisia patella (Scale Insect) | Lives on the underside of leaves |
| Hemiptera: Diaspididae | Symeria pyriformis (Scale Insect) | Lives trees and shrubs, often causes Chlorotic spots on leaves |
The lowland Horopito was initially used in cultures for its medical properties. The leaves produced a decoction used as a stimulant, for stomach aches, skin and venereal disease, where sap or leaves that are bruised and steeped in water is applied to the skin. [19] A decoction of the leaves taken internally was known as ‘Maori painkiller’ or ‘bushman's painkiller’ and used for stomach aches and pains. Chewed leaves were used on toothaches. [19] Early European settlers also used the bark as a substitute for quinine and the sap to aid skin diseases and cure gonorrhoea. [20] They ingested the Horopito internally as an analgesic, antiseptic and a quinine substitute for chronic diarrhoea and stomach pain. Traditional uses also included, colds, flus, chest infections and asthma. In more recent times, the Horopito has been used for its antifungal properties treating bacterial and fungal infections such as Candida albicans . [21] The P. axillaris in particular has been found to have higher levels of paxidal (2.2-6.9%). [17] Paxidal is a medical ingredient used for headaches, toothaches, joint pain, period cramps and more. [22]
The dark-red wood off the Pseudowintera species has also been used by woodworkers for ornamental work such as carving and inlaying [20]
Gaultheria shallon is an evergreen shrub in the heather family (Ericaceae), native to western North America. In English, it is known as salal, shallon, or gaultheria.
Winteraceae is a primitive family of tropical trees and shrubs including 93 species in five genera. It is of particular interest because it is such a primitive angiosperm family, distantly related to Magnoliaceae, though it has a much more southern distribution. Plants in this family grow mostly in the southern hemisphere, and have been found in tropical to temperate climate regions of Malesia, Oceania, eastern Australia, New Zealand, Madagascar and the Neotropics, with most of the genera concentrated in Australasia and Malesia. The five genera, Takhtajania, Tasmannia, Drimys, Pseudowintera, and Zygogynum s.l. all have distinct geographic extant populations. Takhtajania includes a single species, T. perrieri, endemic only to Madagascar, Tasmannia has the largest distribution of genera in Winteraceae with species across the Philippines, Borneo, New Guinea, Eastern Australia, and Tasmannia, Drimys is found in the Neotropical realm, from southern Mexico to the subarctic forests of southern South America, Pseudowintera is found only in New Zealand, and Zygogynum has species in New Guinea and New Caledonia.
Griselinia littoralis, commonly known as kapuka, New Zealand broadleaf or pāpāuma, is a fast-growing small to medium-sized evergreen tree that is native to New Zealand.
Alectryon excelsus, commonly known as tītoki, is a shiny-leaved tree native to New Zealand. It is in the family Sapindaceae. It lives in coastal and lowland forests throughout most of the North Island and from Banks Peninsula to central Westland in the South Island.
Pseudowintera is a genus of woody evergreen flowering trees and shrubs, part of family Winteraceae. The species of Pseudowintera are native to New Zealand. Winteraceae are magnoliids, associated with the humid Antarctic flora of the southern hemisphere. Horopito can be chewed for a hot, peppery taste.
Coprosma robusta, commonly known as karamu, is a flowering plant in the family Rubiaceae that is endemic to New Zealand. It can survive in many climates, but is most commonly found in coastal areas, lowland forests, or shrublands. Karamu can grow to be around 6 meters tall, and grow leaves up to 12 centimeters long. Karamu is used for a variety of purposes in human culture. The fruit that karamu produces can be eaten, and the shoots of karamu are sometimes used for medical purposes.
Urtica ferox, commonly known as tree nettle and in Māori: ongaonga, taraonga, taraongaonga, оr okaoka, is a species of nettle endemic to New Zealand. Unlike the other species in the genus Urtica found in New Zealand, all of which are herbaceous, ongaonga is a large woody shrub that can grow to a height of 3 m (9.8 ft), with the base of the stem reaching 12 cm (4.7 in) in thickness. It has large spines that can result in a painful sting that lasts several days.
Fuchsia excorticata, commonly known as tree fuchsia, New Zealand fuchsia and by its Māori name kōtukutuku, is a New Zealand native tree belonging to the family Onagraceae. It is commonly found throughout New Zealand and as far south as the Auckland Islands. It grows from sea level up to about 1,000 m (3,300 ft), particularly alongside creeks and rivers. It is easily recognised in its native environment by the characteristic appearance of its bark, which peels spontaneously, hanging in red papery strips to show a pale bark underneath. Its scientific name, excorticata, reflects this distinctive property.
Kohekohe is a medium-sized tree in the Meliaceae family, native to New Zealand. It is found in lowland and coastal forests throughout most of the North Island and also occurs in the Marlborough Sounds in the north of the South Island. Mature trees grow up to 15 metres (49 ft) in height, with a trunk up to a metre in diameter.
Ixerba brexioides, the sole species in the genus Ixerba, is a bushy tree with thick, narrow, serrated, dark green leaves and panicles of white flowers with a green heart. The fruit is a green capsule that splits open to reveal the black seeds partly covered with a fleshy scarlet aril against the white inside of the fruit. Ixerba is an endemic of the northern half of the North Island of New Zealand. Common names used in New Zealand are tawari for the tree and whakou when in flower. It is assigned to the family Strasburgeriaceae.
Pseudowintera colorata, also known as mountain horopito or pepper tree, is a species of woody evergreen flowering trees and shrubs, part of family Winteraceae. The species is endemic to New Zealand. All Winteraceae are magnoliids, associated with the humid Antarctic flora of the southern hemisphere.
Pittosporum eugenioides, common names lemonwood or tarata, is a species of New Zealand native evergreen tree. Growing to 12 m (39 ft) tall by 5 m (16 ft) broad, it is conical when young but more rounded in shape when mature. Its leaves are mottled yellow-green with curly edges and a salient bright midrib, and have a strong lemony smell when crushed. It has highly fragrant clusters of attractive yellow-cream flowers in spring, followed by distinctive black seed capsules. It is found throughout New Zealand's North and South Islands along forest margins and stream banks from sea level to 600 m (1,969 ft). It is New Zealand's largest Pittosporum.
Ascarina lucida, commonly known as hutu is a species of small tree in the family Chloranthaceae. It is endemic to New Zealand, being common on the West Coast and Nelson regions of the South Island and more rarely found in the North Island. A typical plant association is within the Westland podocarp/broadleaf forests with common understory associates of Blechnum discolor, Pseudowintera colorata, Pseudopanax colensoi and Coprosma lucida. Most genus members are dioecious, producing unisexual male or female flowers on separate plants. Ascarina lucida, the only member of its genus to occur in New Zealand, is monoecious. It will grow to a height of 6m and can have a 30 cm trunk. The leaves which are in opposite pairs are simple, yellowish green in color, have a raised mid rib and are very similar to Laurelia novae-zelandiae. Their margins have prominent teeth which are dark colored at the tips. Ascarina lucida is now nearly extinct in the Taranaki region but was last reported in Oct 1969 at Mt Taranaki, near Pukeiti by Colin Ogle.
Telopea truncata, commonly known as the Tasmanian waratah, is a plant in the family Proteaceae. It is endemic to Tasmania where it is found on moist acidic soils at altitudes of 600 to 1200 m (2000–4000 ft). Telopea truncata is a component of alpine eucalypt forest, rainforest and scrub communities. It grows as a multistemmed shrub to a height of 3 metres (10 ft), or occasionally as a small tree to 10 m (35 ft) high, with red flower heads, known as inflorescences, appearing over the Tasmanian summer and bearing 10 to 35 individual flowers. Yellow-flowered forms are occasionally seen, but do not form a population distinct from the rest of the species.
Clematis paniculata is a species of flowering plant in the buttercup family Ranunculaceae. It is one of seven species of clematis native to New Zealand. C. paniculata is the most common of these, and is widespread in forests throughout the country.
Griselinia lucida, commonly known as puka, akapuka or shining broadleaf, is an epiphytic plant native to New Zealand. G. lucida naturally occurs in wet lowland-forests and open or rocky coastal environments mostly in the North Island of New Zealand, and restricted areas of the South Island.
Pachycentria glauca is a small epiphytic shrub in the Melastomataceae family. It has 2 subspecies: P. glauca subsp. glauca and P. glauca subsp. maingayi. The glauca subspecies is endemic to Borneo, the maingayi subspecies is native to Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, perhaps Sumatra. It grows on trees, other epiphytes and rocks in partial shade. It is intimately associated with particular ant species, growing on their gardens, providing a home for them, feeding them and having its seeds dispersed by them.
Pseudowintera traversii, sometimes called Travers horopito, is a species of woody shrub in the family Winteraceae. The specific epithet traversii is in honor of naturalist Henry H. Travers (1844–1928), son of William Thomas Locke Travers.
Lake Gault is a small glacial lake in South Westland, New Zealand, near the township of Fox Glacier. A walking track from Lake Matheson leads to the lake, which is surrounded by mature native forest. A small hydro-electric power plant was constructed piping water from the lake to power a gold mining dredge at Gillespies Beach. Endangered Ōkārito kiwi (rowi) have been released into the wild around Lake Gault.
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