Relative age effect

Last updated
The distribution of births according to month in the general population EU 27 nations birth distribution by month 2000 to 2010.pdf
The distribution of births according to month in the general population

The term relative age effect (RAE), also known as birthdate effect or birth date effect, is used to describe a bias, evident in the upper echelons of youth sport [1] and academia, [2] where participation is higher amongst those born earlier in the relevant selection period (and lower for those born later in the selection period) than would be expected from the distribution of births. The selection period is usually the calendar year, the academic year or the sporting season. [3]

Contents

The difference in maturity often contributes to the effect, [4] with age category, skill level and sport context also impacting the risk of the relative age effect. Mid to late adolescent, regional to nation, popular sports seeing the highest risk, and under 11, recreational, unpopular sports seeing the lowest risk. [5]

The terms month of birth bias and season of birth bias are used to describe similar effect but are fundamentally different. Season of birth examines the influence of different prenatal and perinatal seasonal environmental factors like sunlight, temperature, or viral exposure during gestation, that relate to health outcomes. [6] Conversely, the relative age effect shifts with selection dates [7] moving the advantage with the selection period. [8] With influence from social agents, [9] children born soon after the cut-off date are typically included, and a child born soon before the cut-off date excluded.

The distribution, according to month of birth, of players involved in UEFA organised international youth football tournaments in 2010/11 Month of birth distribution UEFA youth tournaments 2010.pdf
The distribution, according to month of birth, of players involved in UEFA organised international youth football tournaments in 2010/11

In sport

Youth sport participation is often organized into annual age-groups. The IOC, [10] FIFA [11] and the six international football confederations (AFC, CAF, CONCACAF, CONMEBOL, OFC and UEFA [12] ) all use 1 January as their administrative cut-off which is most commonly used but, 1 September is used in the UK, [5] like many other locations around the world. [13] This grouping can be seen in the first graph showing the distribution of births, by month, for the European Union over the ten years from 2000 to 2009. The birth rate correlates closely with the number of days in a month with a slight increase in the summer months. The second graph, by the month, shows the birth distribution of over 4,000 players involved in the qualifying squads for U17, U19 and U21 tournaments organised by UEFA in 2010–11.

This declining distribution from the beginning of the year for professional athlete participation has been seen in sports like: association football, [14] baseball, [15] cricket, [16] gymnastics, [17] handball, [18] ice hockey, [19] rugby league, [20] running, [21] skiing, [22] swimming, [17] tennis, [23] and the Youth Olympic Games, [24] as well as non-physical sports like shooting. [25]

Malcolm Gladwell's book Outliers: The Story of Success and the book SuperFreakonomics by Steven Levitt and Stephen Dubner, popularised the issue in respect of Canadian ice-hockey players, European football players, and US Major League baseball players.[ citation needed ]

Contributing factors

Theoretical model of the social agents which influence relative age effect. RAE Image.jpg
Theoretical model of the social agents which influence relative age effect.

Relative age effects are caused by birthdate eligibility rules but can be affected by parents, coaches and athletes through other mechanisms. [26] The Pygmalion effect, Galatea effect, and Matthew effect are examples of effects which impact player motivation. [27]

In addition to these social factors contextual differences change the distribution with decreased effects in female sports, [28] [29] unpopular sports, [30] at different ages, [31] individual sports, [32] or sports with a lower reliance on body size, [33] with an expected increased effect in male sports, popular sports, or competitive sports. [31] The sports popularity in a geographical or cultural area will affect the relative age distribution relative, with examples seen in volleyball [34] and American football. [35]

The early maturation levels giving physical advantages to first quarter individuals can create the bias, [31] seen in players' height in basketball, [36] dominant hand in tennis, [37] or size in a cricket position, [38] but physical size isn't always the cause. [39] Older individuals also gain more competence [40] and self-efficacy, [41] increasing the performance gap. These advantages lead to increased dropout rates for Q1 births. [42] [43] However, the bias for sports where height and mass impedes flexibility, rotational speed and the strength to mass ratio, maturational delay may be preferred as seen in gymnastics. [44]

With an adult group the relative age has the opposite meaning, [45] as performance declines in age, [46] and is more significant with more physically demanding sports, [47] depending on what age the average peak performance level is, in that sport. [48] The "underdog effect" has shown that those late birth individuals may see better chances [49] if they are selected to play, [29] with the advantage decreasing after selection. [50]

Playing position, federation membership, and individual and team performance also contribute to the effect, [18] with older players having a higher risk of injury. [51]

Reducing the relative age effect

Various methods have been suggested and tested to reduce the relative age effect like moving the cut off dates, [34] expanding the age group range, [52] birthdate quotas for the players, [53] the average team age (ATA) method for eligibility, [54] [55] or grouping by height and weight. [34] Some methods have struggled to find success due to the effect moving with selection dates. [7] Making the relative age known to the individuals in the environment have shown less bias in talent identification reducing the relative age effect. [56]

Birthday banding, [57] and re-calculating scores based on relative age, [58] are other methods used to reduce the effects, [59] with bio-banding seeing the most research, showing benefit to early and late maturing players, [60] both in academy football [61] and in recreational football. [62] Bio-banding can help promote appropriate training loads and reduce injury risk, [63] while increasing technical demands from players, [64] however, sports already categorized by maturation metrics like Judo, [65] may not see those effects. More longitudinal studies are needed, [66] alongside more reliable ways to band individuals, [67] as biological, psychological and social development doesn't progress in synchrony, [68] creating different imbalances in the groups.[ citation needed ]

In education

Oxford University RAE profile in aggregate 2004/5 to 2013/14 Oxford 10 years.png
Oxford University RAE profile in aggregate 2004/5 to 2013/14

The Academic year is decided by education authorities with August or September being common cut-off dates in the Northern Hemisphere and February or March cut-off dates in the Southern Hemisphere.

The third graph illustrates the relative age effect in graduations from the University of Oxford over a 10-year period, which has also been seen in UK Nobel laureates. [69]

The relative age effect and reversal effect are evident in education, [70] with older students on average scoring higher marks, getting into more gifted and talented programs, [71] and being more likely to attend higher education [72] in academic schools over vocational schools, [73] not necessarily due to higher intelligence. [74] The Matthew effect again plays a role, as the skills learned early in education compound over time, increasing the advantage, [75] with older students becoming more likely to take up leadership roles. [76] However, like in sport, the effect diminishes over time after middle school, [77] and those born later in the year perform better in university education. [78]

In leadership positions

A relative age effect has also been observed in the context of leadership. An over-representation starts in high-school leadership activities such as sports team captain or club president. [76] Then in adult life, this over-representation has been observed in top managerial positions (CEOs of S&P 500 companies), [79] and in top political positions, both in the USA (senators and representatives), [80] and in Finland (MPs). [81]

Seasonal birth effect

Seasonal birth in humans varies, and alongside the relative age effect the epidemiology of seasonal births show over-representations in health conditions like ADHD [82] and schizophrenia, [83] [84] with one study finding "that higher school starting age lowers the propensity to commit crime at young ages." [85] However, other studies failed to replicate relative age effects on temperament, mood, or physical development. [70]

Obesity has been linked to season of birth with increased chances, [86] potentially due to surrounding temperature at birth, [87] with winter and spring having the highest correlation, but physical inactivity is still a larger risk factor. [88]

Summer babies have increased chances of specific learning difficulties, [6] [89] and winter and spring babies related to schizophrenia and mania/bipolar disorder. Schizoaffective disorder can be related to December-March births, major depression to March-May births, and autism to March births. [90]

Increased rates in seasonal affective disorder relate to the influence of seasonal birth in humans. [91]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exercise</span> Physical activity that improves health

Exercise is physical activity that enhances or maintains fitness and overall health. It is performed for various reasons, including weight loss or maintenance, to aid growth and improve strength, develop muscles and the cardiovascular system, hone athletic skills, improve health, or simply for enjoyment. Many individuals choose to exercise outdoors where they can congregate in groups, socialize, and improve well-being as well as mental health.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aerobic exercise</span> Low to high intensity physical exercise

Aerobic exercise, also known as cardio, is physical exercise of low to high intensity that depends primarily on the aerobic energy-generating process. "Aerobic" is defined as "relating to, involving, or requiring oxygen", and refers to the use of oxygen to meet energy demands during exercise via aerobic metabolism adequately. Aerobic exercise is performed by repeating sequences of light-to-moderate intensity activities for extended periods of time. Examples of cardiovascular or aerobic exercise are medium- to long-distance running or jogging, swimming, cycling, stair climbing and walking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Creatine</span> Chemical compound

Creatine is an organic compound with the nominal formula (H2N)(HN)CN(CH3)CH2CO2H. It exists in various tautomers in solutions. Creatine is found in vertebrates, where it facilitates recycling of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), primarily in muscle and brain tissue. Recycling is achieved by converting adenosine diphosphate (ADP) back to ATP via donation of phosphate groups. Creatine also acts as a buffer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sports drink</span> Oral electrolytic infusion

Sports drinks, also known as electrolyte drinks, are functional beverages whose stated purpose is to help athletes replace water, electrolytes, and energy before, during and especially after training or competition. The evidence is lacking pertaining to the efficacy of use of commercial sports drinks for sports and fitness performance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exercise physiology</span>

Exercise physiology is the physiology of physical exercise. It is one of the allied health professions, and involves the study of the acute responses and chronic adaptations to exercise. Exercise physiologists are the highest qualified exercise professionals and utilise education, lifestyle intervention and specific forms of exercise to rehabilitate and manage acute and chronic injuries and conditions.

Birth order refers to the order a child is born in their family; first-born and second-born are examples. Birth order is often believed to have a profound and lasting effect on psychological development. This assertion has been repeatedly challenged. Recent research has consistently found that earlier born children score slightly higher on average on measures of intelligence, but has found zero, or almost zero, robust effect of birth order on personality. Nevertheless, the notion that birth-order significantly influences personality continues to have a strong presence in pop psychology and popular culture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coach (sport)</span> Person involved in directing, instructing and training sportspeople

An athletic coach is a person coaching in sport, involved in the direction, instruction, and training of a sports team or athlete.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stretching</span> Form of physical exercise where a muscle is stretched to improve it

Stretching is a form of physical exercise in which a specific muscle or tendon is deliberately expanded and flexed in order to improve the muscle's felt elasticity and achieve comfortable muscle tone. The result is a feeling of increased muscle control, flexibility, and range of motion. Stretching is also used therapeutically to alleviate cramps and to improve function in daily activities by increasing range of motion.

Cryotherapy, sometimes known as cold therapy, is the local or general use of low temperatures in medical therapy. Cryotherapy may be used to treat a variety of tissue lesions. The most prominent use of the term refers to the surgical treatment, specifically known as cryosurgery or cryoablation. Cryosurgery is the application of extremely low temperatures to destroy abnormal or diseased tissue and is used most commonly to treat skin conditions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Strength training</span> Performance of physical exercises designed to improve strength

Strength training, also known as weight training or resistance training, involves the performance of physical exercises that are designed to improve strength and endurance. It is often associated with the lifting of weights. It can also incorporate a variety of training techniques such as bodyweight exercises, isometrics, and plyometrics.

Bodybuilding supplements are dietary supplements commonly used by those involved in bodybuilding, weightlifting, mixed martial arts, and athletics for the purpose of facilitating an increase in lean body mass. Bodybuilding supplements may contain ingredients that are advertised to increase a person's muscle, body weight, athletic performance, and decrease a person's percent body fat for desired muscle definition. Among the most widely used are high protein drinks, pre-workout blends, branched-chain amino acids (BCAA), glutamine, arginine, essential fatty acids, creatine, HMB, whey protein, ZMA, and weight loss products. Supplements are sold either as single ingredient preparations or in the form of "stacks" – proprietary blends of various supplements marketed as offering synergistic advantages.

Confidence is the feeling of belief or trust that a person or thing is reliable. Self-confidence is trust in oneself. Self-confidence involves a positive belief that one can generally accomplish what one wishes to do in the future. Self-confidence is not the same as self-esteem, which is an evaluation of one's worth. Self-confidence is related to self-efficacy—belief in one's ability to accomplish a specific task or goal. Confidence can be a self-fulfilling prophecy, as those without it may fail because they lack it, and those with it may succeed because they have it rather than because of an innate ability or skill.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pull-up (exercise)</span> Upper-body compound pulling exercise

A pull-up is an upper-body strength exercise. The pull-up is a closed-chain movement where the body is suspended by the hands, gripping a bar or other implement at a distance typically wider than shoulder-width, and pulled up. As this happens, the elbows flex and the shoulders adduct and extend to bring the elbows to the torso.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exercise and music</span>

The interplay of exercise and music has long been discussed, crossing the disciplines of biomechanics, neurology, physiology, and sport psychology. Research and experimentation on the relation between music and exercise dates back to the early 1900s, when investigator Leonard Ayres found that cyclists pedaled faster in the presence of a band and music, as opposed to when it was silent. Since then, hundreds of studies have been conducted on both the physiological and psychological relationship between music and physical activity, with a number of clear cut relationships and trends emerging. Exercise and music involves the use of music before, during, and/or after performing a physical activity. Listening to music while exercising is done to improve aspects of exercise, such as strength output, exercise duration, and motivation. The use of music during exercise can provide physiological benefits as well as psychological benefits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Minimalist shoe</span> Shoes that approximate barefoot running

Minimalist or barefoot shoes are intended to closely approximate barefoot running or walking conditions in comparison to traditional shoes. Minimalist shoes are defined as providing "minimal interference with the natural movement of the foot, because of its high flexibility, low heel to toe drop, weight and stack height, and the absence of motion control and stability devices." Minimalist shoes provide more sensory contact for the foot on the ground while simultaneously providing the feet with some protection from ground hazards and conditions. Research shows that wearing a minimalist shoe can help improve running economy, foot strength and arch function.

Stephen John Haake is a British sports engineer. He is professor of sports engineering at Sheffield Hallam University, England and is founding director of the university's advanced wellbeing research centre.

Velocity based training (VBT) is a modern approach to strength training and power training which utilises velocity tracking technology to provide rich objective data as a means to motivate and support real-time adjustments in an athlete's training plan. Typical strength and power programming and periodisation plans rely on the manipulation of reps, sets and loads as a means to calibrate training stressors in the pursuit of specific adaptations. Since the late 1990s, innovations in bar speed monitoring technology has brought velocity based training closer to the mainstream as the range of hardware and software solutions for measuring exercise velocities have become easier to use and more affordable. Velocity based training has a wide range of use cases and applications in strength and conditioning. These include barbell sports such as powerlifting and Olympic weightlifting and Crossfit, as well as rock climbing.Velocity based training is widely adopted across professional sporting clubs, with the data supporting many periodisation decisions for coaches in the weight room and on the field.

The Cogstate Brief Battery (CBB) is a computer-based cognitive assessment used in clinical trials, healthcare, and academic research to measure neurological cognition. It was developed by Cogstate Ltd.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Standing cycling</span> Cycling method

Standing cycling or cycling out of the saddle is a form of cycling in which the rider stands up while applying force to the pedals.

The Nordic hamstring curl (NHC) is an exercise in which a person kneels with their feet fixed in position and lowers their body by extending the knee. It reduces hamstring injuries in athletes, and is commonly used as a form of injury prevention. NHC increases strength of the hamstrings and length of the fascia, sprint speed, and change of direction ability. It is debated whether NHC is an open or closed chain exercise. NHC has been compared to the razor hamstring curl.

References

  1. "Birthdate Effects: A Review of the Literature from 1990-on" (PDF). Cambridgeassessment.org.uk. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  2. Claire Crawford; Lorraine Dearden; Costas Meghir. "When You Are Born Matters: The Impact of Date of Birth on Child Cognitive Outcomes in England" (PDF). Cee.lse.ac.uk. ISSN   2045-6557. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 January 2012. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  3. Kelly, Adam L.; Côté, Jean; Jeffreys, Mark; Turnnidge, Jennifer, eds. (2021-06-04). Birth Advantages and Relative Age Effects in Sport: Exploring Organizational Structures and Creating Appropriate Settings. New York: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003163572. ISBN   978-1-003-16357-2. S2CID   241069004.
  4. "Long-term relative age effect: Evidence from Italian football". VoxEU.org. 23 April 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
  5. 1 2 Cobley, Stephen; Baker, Joseph; Wattie, Nick; McKenna, Jim (2009). "Annual age-grouping and athlete development: a meta-analytical review of relative age effects in sport". Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.). 39 (3): 235–256. doi:10.2165/00007256-200939030-00005. ISSN   0112-1642. PMID   19290678. S2CID   32633686.
  6. 1 2 Barry, H.; Bary, H. (1961). "Season of birth. An epidemiological study in psychiatry". Archives of General Psychiatry. 5: 292–300. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1961.01710150074012. ISSN   0003-990X. PMID   13687345.
  7. 1 2 Helsen, Werner F.; Starkes, Janet L.; Van Winckel, Jan (2000-11-01). "Effect of a change in selection year on success in male soccer players". American Journal of Human Biology. 12 (6): 729–735. doi:10.1002/1520-6300(200011/12)12:6<729::AID-AJHB2>3.0.CO;2-7. ISSN   1520-6300. PMID   11534065. S2CID   24013421.
  8. Musch, Jochen; Hay, Roy (1999-03-01). "The Relative Age Effect in Soccer: Cross-Cultural Evidence for a Systematic Discrimination against Children Born Late in the Competition Year". Sociology of Sport Journal. 16 (1): 54–64. doi:10.1123/ssj.16.1.54. ISSN   0741-1235.
  9. Hancock, David J.; Adler, Ashley L.; Côté, Jean (2013). "A proposed theoretical model to explain relative age effects in sport". European Journal of Sport Science. 13 (6): 630–637. doi:10.1080/17461391.2013.775352. hdl: 1974/14350 . ISSN   1536-7290. PMID   24251740. S2CID   32336640.
  10. "Olympic Documents - Athletes, Olympic Games, IOC and More" (PDF). 29 July 2021.
  11. "FIFA.com" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-03-30. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  12. Uefa.com https://web.archive.org/web/20180621143622/https://www.uefa.com/MultimediaFiles/Download/Regulations/competitions/Regulations/01/65/31/62/1653162_DOWNLOAD.pdf. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2021.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  13. Wattie, Nick; Cobley, Stephen; Baker, Joseph (2008). "Towards a unified understanding of relative age effects". Journal of Sports Sciences. 26 (13): 1403–1409. doi:10.1080/02640410802233034. ISSN   0264-0414. PMID   18825541. S2CID   11241958.
  14. Ashworth, John; Heyndels, Bruno (1 August 2007). "Selection Bias and Peer Effects in Team Sports: The Effect of Age Grouping on Earnings of German Soccer Players". Journal of Sports Economics. 8 (4): 355–377. doi:10.1177/1527002506287695. ISSN   1527-0025. S2CID   154330153.
  15. Herring, Chad H.; Beyer, Kyle S.; Fukuda, David H. (2021). "Relative Age Effects as Evidence of Selection Bias in Major League Baseball Draftees (2013–2018)". The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 35 (3): 644–651. doi:10.1519/JSC.0000000000003951. ISSN   1064-8011. PMID   33470599. S2CID   231651477.
  16. Edwards, S. (1994-07-21). "Born too late to win?". Nature. 370 (6486): 186. Bibcode:1994Natur.370..186E. doi: 10.1038/370186a0 . ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   8028664. S2CID   5420946.
  17. 1 2 Baxter-Jones, A. D. (1995). "Growth and development of young athletes. Should competition levels be age related?". Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.). 20 (2): 59–64. doi:10.2165/00007256-199520020-00001. ISSN   0112-1642. PMID   7481282. S2CID   45304762.
  18. 1 2 Rubia, Alfonso de la; Bjørndal, Christian Thue; Sánchez-Molina, Joaquín; Yagüe, José María; Calvo, Jorge Lorenzo; Maroto-Izquierdo, Sergio (2020). "The relationship between the relative age effect and performance among athletes in World Handball Championships". PLOS ONE. 15 (3): e0230133. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1530133R. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0230133 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   7098603 . PMID   32214322.
  19. Addona, Vittorio; Yates, Philip A. (15 October 2010). "A Closer Look at the Relative Age Effect in the National Hockey League". Journal of Quantitative Analysis in Sports. 6 (4). doi:10.2202/1559-0410.1227. ISSN   1559-0410. S2CID   120240341.
  20. Till, K.; Cobley, S.; Wattie, N.; O'Hara, J.; Cooke, C.; Chapman, C. (2010). "The prevalence, influential factors and mechanisms of relative age effects in UK Rugby League". Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 20 (2): 320–329. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.00884.x. ISSN   1600-0838. PMID   19486487. S2CID   33840698.
  21. Romann, Michael; Cobley, Stephen (6 April 2015). "Relative Age Effects in Athletic Sprinting and Corrective Adjustments as a Solution for Their Removal". PLOS ONE. 10 (4): e0122988. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1022988R. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0122988 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   4386815 . PMID   25844642.
  22. Romann, Michael; Fuchslocher, Jörg (1 April 2014). "Survival and Success of the Relatively Oldest in Swiss Youth Skiing Competition". International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching. 9 (2): 347–356. doi:10.1260/1747-9541.9.2.347. ISSN   1747-9541. S2CID   144244440.
  23. Ulbricht, Alexander; Fernandez-Fernandez, Jaime; Mendez-Villanueva, Alberto; Ferrauti, Alexander (2015). "The Relative Age Effect and Physical Fitness Characteristics in German Male Tennis Players". Journal of Sports Science & Medicine. 14 (3): 634–642. ISSN   1303-2968. PMC   4541129 . PMID   26336351.
  24. Raschner, Christian; Müller, Lisa; Hildebrandt, Carolin (1 December 2012). "The role of a relative age effect in the first winter Youth Olympic Games in 2012". British Journal of Sports Medicine. 46 (15): 1038–1043. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2012-091535. ISSN   0306-3674. PMID   22976907. S2CID   37476293.
  25. Delorme, Nicolas; Raspaud, Michel (1 August 2009). "Is there an influence of relative age on participation in non-physical sports activities? The example of shooting sports". Journal of Sports Sciences. 27 (10): 1035–1042. doi:10.1080/02640410902926438. ISSN   0264-0414. PMID   19847687. S2CID   1624812.
  26. Thompson, Angus H.; Barnsley, Roger H.; Stebelsky, George (1991-06-01). ""Born to Play Ball" The Relative Age Effect and Major League Baseball". Sociology of Sport Journal. 8 (2): 146–151. doi:10.1123/ssj.8.2.146. ISSN   0741-1235.
  27. Harter, Susan (1978). "Effectance Motivation Reconsidered. Toward a Developmental Model". Human Development. 21 (1): 34–64. doi:10.1159/000271574. ISSN   0018-716X.
  28. Abel, Ernest L.; Kruger, Michael M.; Pandya, Kalyani (August 2011). "A relative age effect in men's but not women's professional baseball: 1943-1954". Psychological Reports. 109 (1): 285–288. doi:10.2466/05.PR0.109.4.285-288. ISSN   0033-2941. PMID   22049668. S2CID   23937679.
  29. 1 2 Romann, Michael; Fuchslocher, Jörg (2014-06-01). "The Need to Consider Relative Age Effects in Women's Talent Development Process". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 118 (3): 651–662. doi:10.2466/30.10.PMS.118k24w8. ISSN   0031-5125. PMID   25068738. S2CID   207391641.
  30. Wattie, Nick. "A historical examination of relative age effects in Canadian hockey players". International Journal of Sport Psychology.
  31. 1 2 3 Delorme, N.; Chalabaev, A.; Raspaud, M. (2011). "Relative age is associated with sport dropout: evidence from youth categories of French basketball: Relative age effect and dropout". Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 21 (1): 120–128. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.01060.x. PMID   20136758. S2CID   20611526.
  32. Baker, Joseph; Janning, Christina; Wong, Harmonie; Cobley, Stephen; Schorer, Jörg (2014). "Variations in relative age effects in individual sports: skiing, figure skating and gymnastics". European Journal of Sport Science. 14 (Suppl 1): S183–190. doi:10.1080/17461391.2012.671369. ISSN   1536-7290. PMID   24444205. S2CID   205918608.
  33. Gil, Susana M.; Bidaurrazaga-Letona, Iraia; Larruskain, Jon; Esain, Izaro; Irazusta, Jon (2021). "The relative age effect in young athletes: A countywide analysis of 9-14-year-old participants in all competitive sports". PLOS ONE. 16 (7): e0254687. Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1654687G. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0254687 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   8284647 . PMID   34270609.
  34. 1 2 3 Musch, Jochen; Grondin, Simon (2001). "Unequal Competition as an Impediment to Personal Development: A Review of the Relative Age Effect in Sport". Developmental Review. 21 (2): 147–167. doi:10.1006/drev.2000.0516. ISSN   0273-2297.
  35. Stanaway, Kimberly B.; Hines, Terence M. (1995-12-01). "Lack of a Season of Birth Effect among American Athletes". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 81 (3): 952–954. doi:10.2466/pms.1995.81.3.952. ISSN   0031-5125. S2CID   144431104.
  36. Delorme, N.; Raspaud, M. (2009). "The relative age effect in young French basketball players: a study on the whole population". Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 19 (2): 235–242. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2008.00781.x. ISSN   1600-0838. PMID   18298612. S2CID   126598.
  37. Loffing, Florian; Schorer, Jörg; Cobley, Steve P. (2010-06-01). "Relative Age Effects are a developmental problem in tennis: but not necessarily when you're left-handed!". High Ability Studies. 21 (1): 19–25. doi:10.1080/13598139.2010.488084. ISSN   1359-8139. S2CID   145150287.
  38. Côté, Jean; Macdonald, Dany J.; Baker, Joseph; Abernethy, Bruce (2006). "When "where" is more important than "when": birthplace and birthdate effects on the achievement of sporting expertise". Journal of Sports Sciences. 24 (10): 1065–1073. doi:10.1080/02640410500432490. hdl: 1974/14413 . ISSN   0264-0414. PMID   17115521. S2CID   12638438.
  39. Sherar, Lauren B.; Baxter-Jones, Adam D. G.; Faulkner, Robert A.; Russell, Keith W. (2007). "Do physical maturity and birth date predict talent in male youth ice hockey players?". Journal of Sports Sciences. 25 (8): 879–886. doi:10.1080/02640410600908001. ISSN   0264-0414. PMID   17474041. S2CID   24530414.
  40. Harter, Susan (1993), Baumeister, Roy F. (ed.), "Causes and Consequences of Low Self-Esteem in Children and Adolescents", Self-Esteem: The Puzzle of Low Self-Regard, The Plenum Series in Social / Clinical Psychology, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 87–116, doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-8956-9_5, ISBN   978-1-4684-8956-9 , retrieved 2021-11-12
  41. Heffernan, Colleen J. (1988). "Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory, Albert Bandura Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1986, xiii + 617 pp. Hardback. US$39.50". Behaviour Change. 5 (1): 37–38. doi:10.1017/S0813483900008238. ISSN   0813-4839.
  42. García, Miguel Saavedra; Aguilar, Óscar Gutiérrez; Romero, Juan J Fernández; Lastra, David Fernández; Oliveira, Gabriel Eiras (2014-10-01). "Relative age effect in lower categories of international basketball". International Review for the Sociology of Sport. 49 (5): 526–535. doi:10.1177/1012690212462832. ISSN   1012-6902. S2CID   145132099.
  43. Delorme, Nicolas; Boiché, Julie; Raspaud, Michel (1 May 2010). "Relative age and dropout in French male soccer". Journal of Sports Sciences. 28 (7): 717–722. doi:10.1080/02640411003663276. ISSN   0264-0414. PMID   20480428. S2CID   6176116.
  44. Baxter-Jones, Adam D.G. (1995). "Growth and Development of Young Athletes: Should Competition Levels be Age Related?". Sports Medicine. 20 (2): 59–64. doi:10.2165/00007256-199520020-00001. ISSN   0112-1642. PMID   7481282. S2CID   45304762.
  45. Medic, Nikola; Starkes, Janet L.; Young, Bradley W. (2007). "Examining relative age effects on performance achievement and participation rates in Masters athletes". Journal of Sports Sciences. 25 (12): 1377–1384. doi:10.1080/02640410601110128. ISSN   0264-0414. PMID   17786690. S2CID   6530220.
  46. Baker, Joseph; Deakin, Janice; Horton, Sean; Pearce, G. William (2007). "Maintenance of skilled performance with age: a descriptive examination of professional golfers". Journal of Aging and Physical Activity. 15 (3): 300–317. doi:10.1123/japa.15.3.300. ISSN   1063-8652. PMID   17724396.
  47. Bortz, W. M. (1996). "How fast do we age? Exercise performance over time as a biomarker". The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences. 51 (5): M223–225. doi: 10.1093/gerona/51a.5.m223 . ISSN   1079-5006. PMID   8808993.
  48. Starkes, Janet. "Aging and the retention of sport expertise". International Journal of Sport Psychology.
  49. Schorer, J.; Cobley, S.; Büsch, D.; Bräutigam, H.; Baker, J. (2009). "Influences of competition level, gender, player nationality, career stage and playing position on relative age effects". Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 19 (5): 720–730. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2008.00838.x . ISSN   1600-0838. PMID   18627551. S2CID   1084598.
  50. Vaeyens, Roel; Philippaerts, Renaat M.; Malina, Robert M. (2005). "The relative age effect in soccer: a match-related perspective". Journal of Sports Sciences. 23 (7): 747–756. doi:10.1080/02640410400022052. ISSN   0264-0414. PMID   16195025. S2CID   19513513.
  51. Wattie, Nick; Cobley, Stephen; Macpherson, Alison; Howard, Andrew; Montelpare, William J.; Baker, Joseph (2007). "Injuries in Canadian youth ice hockey: the influence of relative age". Pediatrics. 120 (1): 142–148. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-2672. ISSN   1098-4275. PMID   17606571. S2CID   24189760.
  52. Boucher, J. "The novem system: A practical solution to age grouping". Cahper Journal.
  53. Barnsley, Roger H.; Thompson, A. H. (1988). "APA PsycNet". Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne des Sciences du Comportement. 20 (2): 167–176. doi:10.1037/h0079927 . Retrieved 2021-11-12.
  54. Verbeek, J.; Lawrence, S.; van der Breggen, J.; Kelly, A.; Jonker, L. (2021). "The average team age method and its potential to reduce relative age effects.". Birth Advantages and Relative Age Effects in Sport. Routledge. pp. 107–124. doi:10.4324/9781003163572-10. ISBN   9781003163572. S2CID   234878601.
  55. Helsen, Werner F.; Starkes, Janet L.; Van Winckel, Jan (1998). "The influence of relative age on success and dropout in male soccer players". American Journal of Human Biology. 10 (6): 791–798. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6300(1998)10:6<791::AID-AJHB10>3.0.CO;2-1. ISSN   1520-6300. PMID   28561412. S2CID   32958835.
  56. Mann, David (2017). "Age-ordered shirt numbering reduces the selection bias associated with the relative age effect". Journal of Sports Sciences. 35 (8): 784–790. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2016.1189588 . hdl: 1871.1/8699ca89-7bc5-4be7-b61a-bf8841dc3106 . PMID   27238077. S2CID   30301449.
  57. Kelly, Adam L.; Jackson, Daniel T.; Taylor, Josh J.; Jeffreys, Mark A.; Turnnidge, Jennifer (2020). ""Birthday-Banding" as a Strategy to Moderate the Relative Age Effect: A Case Study Into the England Squash Talent Pathway". Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. 2: 573890. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2020.573890 . ISSN   2624-9367. PMC   7739587 . PMID   33345136.
  58. Romann, M; Cobley, S (2015). "Relative Age Effects in Athletic Sprinting and Corrective Adjustments as a Solution for Their Removal". PLOS ONE. 10 (4): e0122988. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1022988R. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0122988 . PMC   4386815 . PMID   25844642.
  59. Reeves, M; Enright, K; Dowling, J; Roberts, S (2018). "Stakeholders' understanding and perceptions of bio-banding in junior-elite football training" (PDF). Soccer & Society. 19: 1166–1182. doi:10.1080/14660970.2018.1432384. S2CID   148894870.
  60. Hill, Megan; Spencer, Amy; McGee, Darragh; Scott, Sam; Frame, Malcolm; Cumming, Sean P. (2020-05-18). "The psychology of bio-banding: a Vygotskian perspective". Annals of Human Biology. 47 (4): 328–335. doi:10.1080/03014460.2020.1797163. ISSN   0301-4460. PMID   32674664. S2CID   220607644.
  61. Bradley, Ben; Johnson, David; Hill, Megan; McGee, Darragh; Kana-Ah, Adam; Sharpin, Callum; Sharp, Peter; Kelly, Adam; Cumming, Sean P.; Malina, Robert M. (2019). "Bio-banding in academy football: player's perceptions of a maturity matched tournament". Annals of Human Biology. 46 (5): 400–408. doi:10.1080/03014460.2019.1640284. ISSN   1464-5033. PMID   31288575. S2CID   195871072.
  62. Romann, Michael; Lüdin, Dennis; Born, Dennis-Peter (2020-05-12). "Bio-banding in junior soccer players: a pilot study". BMC Research Notes. 13 (1): 240. doi: 10.1186/s13104-020-05083-5 . ISSN   1756-0500. PMC   7216411 . PMID   32398110.
  63. Malina, Robert M.; Cumming, Sean P.; Rogol, Alan D.; Coelho-E-Silva, Manuel J.; Figueiredo, Antonio J.; Konarski, Jan M.; Kozieł, Sławomir M. (2019). "Bio-Banding in Youth Sports: Background, Concept, and Application". Sports Medicine. 49 (11): 1671–1685. doi:10.1007/s40279-019-01166-x. ISSN   1179-2035. PMID   31429034. S2CID   201058305.
  64. Abbott, Will; Williams, Stuart; Brickley, Gary; Smeeton, Nicholas J. (2019-08-14). "Effects of Bio-Banding upon Physical and Technical Performance during Soccer Competition: A Preliminary Analysis". Sports. 7 (8): E193. doi: 10.3390/sports7080193 . ISSN   2075-4663. PMC   6722793 . PMID   31416230.
  65. Giudicelli, Bruno B.; Luz, Leonardo G. O.; Sogut, Mustafa; Massart, Alain G.; Júnior, Arnaldo C.; Figueiredo, António J. (2020-01-05). "Bio-Banding in Judo: The Mediation Role of Anthropometric Variables on the Maturation Effect". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 17 (1): E361. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17010361 . ISSN   1660-4601. PMC   6981667 . PMID   31948074.
  66. Stănilă, Alexandra Mihaela; Lupşa, Marius Matichescu; Stănilă, Cătălin (2020-09-01). "BIO-BANDING from concept to practice in sports". Timisoara Physical Education and Rehabilitation Journal. 13 (24): 19–24. doi: 10.2478/tperj-2020-0003 . S2CID   220772237.
  67. Reeves, Matthew J.; Enright, Kevin J.; Dowling, Jack; Roberts, Simon J. (2018-11-17). "Stakeholders' understanding and perceptions of bio-banding in junior-elite football training". Soccer & Society. 19 (8): 1166–1182. doi:10.1080/14660970.2018.1432384. ISSN   1466-0970. S2CID   148894870.
  68. Cumming, Sean P.; Lloyd, Rhodri S.; Oliver, Jon L.; Eisenmann, Joey C.; Malina, Robert M. (2017). "Bio-banding in Sport: Applications to Competition, Talent Identification, and Strength and Conditioning of Youth Athletes". Strength & Conditioning Journal. 39 (2): 34–47. doi:10.1519/SSC.0000000000000281. hdl:10369/8460. ISSN   1524-1602.
  69. Fukunaga, Hisanori; Taguri, Masataka; Morita, Satoshi (2013-10-01). "Relative age effect on Nobel laureates in the UK". JRSM Short Reports. 4 (10): 2042533313492514. doi:10.1177/2042533313492514. ISSN   2042-5333. PMC   3831864 . PMID   24319580.
  70. 1 2 Jeronimus, Bertus F; Stavrakakis, Nikolaos; Veenstra, René; Oldehinkel, Albertine J (2015). "Relative Age Effects in Dutch Adolescents: Concurrent and Prospective Analyses". PLOS ONE. 10 (6): e0128856. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1028856J. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0128856 . PMC   4468064 . PMID   26076384.
  71. Cobley, Stephen; McKenna, Jim; Baker, Joeseph; Wattie, Nick (May 2009). "APA PsycNet". Journal of Educational Psychology. 101 (2): 520–528. doi:10.1037/a0013845 . Retrieved 2021-11-15.
  72. Bedard, K; Dhuey, E (2006). "The Persistence of Early Childhood Maturity: International Evidence of Long-Run Age Effects". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 121 (4): 1437–72. doi:10.1093/qje/121.4.1437. JSTOR   25098831.
  73. Ponzo, Michela; Scoppa, Vincenzo (2014). "The long-lasting effects of school entry age: Evidence from Italian students". Journal of Policy Modeling. 36 (3): 578–99. doi:10.1016/j.jpolmod.2014.04.001.
  74. Shearer, E. (1967-12-01). "The Effect of Date of Birth on Teachers' Assessments of Children". Educational Research. 10 (1): 51–56. doi:10.1080/0013188670100104. ISSN   0013-1881.
  75. Cunha, Flavio; Heckman, James J.; Lochner, Lance; Masterov, Dimitriy V. (2006-01-01), Hanushek, E.; Welch, F. (eds.), Chapter 12 Interpreting the Evidence on Life Cycle Skill Formation, Handbook of the Economics of Education, vol. 1, Elsevier, pp. 697–812, doi:10.1016/S1574-0692(06)01012-9, ISBN   9780444513991 , retrieved 2021-11-13
  76. 1 2 Dhuey, Elizabeth; Lipscomb, Stephen (2008). "What makes a leader? Relative age and high school leadership". Economics of Education Review. 27 (2): 173–83. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.394.8881 . doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2006.08.005.
  77. Hauck, Anne Logan; Finch, A. J. (1993). "The effect of relative age on achievement in middle school". Psychology in the Schools. 30 (1): 74–79. doi:10.1002/1520-6807(199301)30:1<74::AID-PITS2310300112>3.0.CO;2-E. ISSN   1520-6807.
  78. Russell, R. J. H.; Startup, M. J. (1986-01-01). "Month of birth and academic achievement". Personality and Individual Differences. 7 (6): 839–846. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(86)90082-6. ISSN   0191-8869.
  79. Du, Qianqian; Gao, Huasheng; Levi, Maurice D (2012). "The relative-age effect and career success: Evidence from corporate CEOs". Economics Letters. 117 (3): 660–2. doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2012.08.017.
  80. Muller, Daniel; Page, Lionel (2016). "Born leaders: Political selection and the relative age effect in the US Congress". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A (Statistics in Society). 179 (3): 809–29. doi: 10.1111/rssa.12154 . S2CID   124379974.
  81. "Gender Specific Relative Age Effects in Politics and Football" (PDF). Doria.fi. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  82. Morrow, R. L; Garland, E. J; Wright, J. M; MacLure, M; Taylor, S; Dormuth, C. R (2012). "Influence of relative age on diagnosis and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children". Canadian Medical Association Journal. 184 (7): 755–62. doi:10.1503/cmaj.111619. PMC   3328520 . PMID   22392937.
  83. Davies, G; Welham, J; Chant, D; Torrey, E. F; McGrath, J (2003). "A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Northern Hemisphere Season of Birth Studies in Schizophrenia". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 29 (3): 587–93. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a007030 . PMID   14609251.
  84. "Season of Birth of Students Receiving Special Education Services Under a Diagnosis of Emotional and Behavioral Disorder" (PDF). Eduratio.be. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  85. Landersø, Rasmus; Nielsen, Helena Skyt; Simonsen, Marianne (2017). "School Starting Age and the Crime-age Profile" (PDF). The Economic Journal. 127 (602): 1096–118. doi:10.1111/ecoj.12325. S2CID   155576753. SSRN   2984362.
  86. Hillman, R. W.; Conway, H. C. (1972). "Season of birth and relative body weight". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 25 (3): 279–281. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/25.3.279 . ISSN   0002-9165. PMID   5011910.
  87. Phillips, D. I.; Young, J. B. (2000). "Birth weight, climate at birth and the risk of obesity in adult life". International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders. 24 (3): 281–287. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0801125. PMID   10757620. S2CID   24898098.
  88. Wattie, Nick; Ardern, Chris I.; Baker, Joseph (2008). "Season of birth and prevalence of overweight and obesity in Canada". Early Human Development. 84 (8): 539–547. doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2007.12.010. ISSN   0378-3782. PMID   18280062.
  89. Diamond, Grace H. (1983-03-01). "The Birthdate Effect: A Maturational Effect?". Journal of Learning Disabilities. 16 (3): 161–164. doi:10.1177/002221948301600306. ISSN   0022-2194. PMID   6864105. S2CID   28321784.
  90. Torrey, E. F.; Miller, J.; Rawlings, R.; Yolken, R. H. (1997-11-07). "Seasonality of births in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: a review of the literature". Schizophrenia Research. 28 (1): 1–38. doi: 10.1016/s0920-9964(97)00092-3 . ISSN   0920-9964. PMID   9428062. S2CID   54259124.
  91. Levitan, Robert D.; Masellis, Mario; Lam, Raymond W.; Kaplan, Allan S.; Davis, Caroline; Tharmalingam, Subi; Mackenzie, Bronwyn; Basile, Vincenzo S.; Kennedy, James L. (2006). "A birth-season/DRD4 gene interaction predicts weight gain and obesity in women with seasonal affective disorder: A seasonal thrifty phenotype hypothesis". Neuropsychopharmacology. 31 (11): 2498–2503. doi: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301121 . ISSN   0893-133X. PMID   16760922. S2CID   35504875.