Last updated One of REL's more popular products was their 7 × 50 military binoculars.
Research Enterprises Limited (REL for short) was a short-lived Toronto-based Crown Corporation that built electronics and optical instruments during World War II. They existed only six years from late 1940 until 1946, and were active only from late 1941, but during that period they became Leaside's largest employer, producing C$220 million worth of radar systems and optical instruments ($3,206 million in 2022). After the war, the government rapidly closed the various wartime companies it had started. After REL was closed, their factories formed the basis of a Corning Glass plant, Philips Electronics, and a variety of other firms. Today only a few of the original buildings still stand, used primarily for light industrial and small commercial enterprises.
REL owes its existence to the demands of General Andrew McNaughton, who was concerned about a lack of optical equipment after the Canadian experience in World War I.
In August 1939, General Andrew McNaughton, President of the National Research Council (NRC), asked the head of the NRC's Optics Section, Leslie E. Howlett, to prepare a report on how to set up an optics industry in Canada. McNaughton remembered the acute shortages of any sort of optical equipment in World War I and intended to address this.[1] Howlett returned a report on 11 September, stating that the first task should be to visit their US counterparts in the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) and ask their advice. McNaughton immediately approved his plan, and Howlett left for Washington, DC on the 13th.[2]
In Washington, Howlett found that his counterparts at the NBS had faced exactly the same problem in WWI, and were happy to provide complete details of their solutions. On his way back to Ottawa, Howlett visited Bausch and Lomb (B&L) in Rochester and Spencer Lens (of the American Optical Company) in Buffalo, both of whom were equally forthcoming with information. Howlett completed his report to McNaughton in October. McNaughton took the report to the Government, but found them unwilling to provide funds.[3]
The NRC had funds available in its budget, and the new director, Jack Mackenzie (who took over from McNaughton), was convinced to start initial work on the concept. On 16 November, Mackenzie asked Howlett to draw up floor plans for an optical shop for the NRC, and funding was provided on 20 November.[3] The shop was up and running by early 1940, and on 1 March it was put under the direction of J. N. Cairns. By the end of April, the shop was turning out samples of all sorts of optical equipment.[3]
Building the optics factory
An REL employee tests artillery gun sights in the summer of 1943.
By this time, McNaughton had moved to England where he commanded the Canadian Army. Early that year, a Lt.Col. Harrison of the Department of Munitions and Supply visited McNaughton in the UK, where McNaughton convinced him of the necessity of setting up a real optics factory. Harrison returned to Canada, and on 26 April 1940 called a meeting to discuss the idea. He was convinced the easiest solution was to simply get the Americans to do it, and they approached the Spencer Lens to set up shop in Canada, but they proved skeptical.[3]
The fall of France and the Dunkirk Evacuation convinced the authorities immediate action was needed, and the Optics Section received a request for the floor plan of a complete factory on 11 June 1940. After short consideration, the decision was made, apparently by C. D. Howe,[1] to build the factory as a Crown Corporation known as Research Enterprises Limited. The company was formally established on 16 July with George Sweny as the General Manager. Early consideration was given to building the factory in the Ottawa area, close to the NRC, but Sweny convinced them that Toronto's labor pool was more suitable.[4]
On 30 June, Howlett traveled to the US with professor R.J. Montgomery of the University of Toronto who had recently joined the Optics Section. Montgomery had previously worked at B&L in Rochester. They returned to Washington along with a draftsman to collect a list of the machinery they would need to equip a factory. In August, Sweny, Howlett and Henderson went to Toronto to scout locations, and picked the Leaside Business Park. This was formerly the home of the World War I-era Leaside Aerodrome, but by this time being used by a number of small industrial companies and was well served by a major line of the Canadian Pacific Railway,[4] and was the site of a major Canadian National Railway maintenance depot.[5]
With the location selected, the NCR issued orders for all of the equipment, including a furnace, stirrers and casting machines. Believing the US was going to enter the war and that machine supplies would dry up, the NCR placed additional orders for machine tools and other supplies, to the order of $600,000 ($8,744,681 in 2022). On 27 August, Howe appointed Lt.Col. W. E. Phillips to the board, and he replaced Sweny as GM on 30 November. Sod was turned on 16 September 1940, and the first glass poured on 5 June 1941.[4]
Tizard Mission
Another issue revealed during the Tizard Mission was the need for CRTs, a product that REL's glass plant was able to quickly provide. Here the glass bulbs are being coated with phosphorus paint to produce the display surface.
On 16 August, Henry Tizard visited the NRC as part of what would become the Tizard Mission. He met Mackenzie and Fowler but found them preoccupied, testing a local invention that proceeded to fail. He spent the rest of the day meeting politicians and had dinner with Prime Minister Mackenzie King. Over the next three days he surveyed the Canadian research capabilities, and was told by Fowler that the NRC had little to do, which is why they were testing silly inventions.[6]
When he asked about radar, knowing they had been briefed on the topic by famous Canadian explorer Charles Wright in early 1939, Tizard was saddened to learn that only a small amount of money had been spent on studying the matter, and this only started in September 1939. Although several rounds of funding had followed, including $40,000 in May 1940, the NRC efforts had been somewhat bumbling, successful only in developing a Coast Defence radar that was state-of-the-art for 1938. Nevertheless, with this minor success, in July the government approved the building of a small radar factory employing 130 to 140 people.[7]
Having moved on to Washington on 9 September, Tizard was later joined by a small team from the NRC to coordinate the efforts of the three nations. Tizard told Fowler that they should immediately begin to work on starting production of the Air-to-Surface Vessel radar (ASV), used to search for ships and submarines. Of the variety of small radars developed by that time, ASV was technically the simplest. After the main work of the Mission was over, on 24 October the remaining Tizard Mission members returned to Ottawa and found that their meetings the previous month had a profound effect. Instead of the small radar factory originally envisioned, plans were now underway for a major electronics factory, employing hundreds. Just how large was the only matter of debate.[8]
Tizard had returned to the UK by this point, and his position with the coordinating group had been taken over by John Cockcroft. The NRC explained that plans had not been formalized because the UK government had not placed any firm orders, nor indicated when or how large those orders might be. Cockcroft took it upon himself to write an official memo outlining a development plan including the immediate construction of a factory to build ASV sets for both UK and US use, followed by a microwave-frequency gun-laying set for anti-aircraft guns, and another seven projects of lower priority. He also suggested building out the capacity to produce the required vacuum tubes and similar electronics to support the programs. He concluded that the factory should be large enough to support sales to both the UK and US.[9]
Electronics factory
The GL Mk. IIIc was one of REL's more notorious products, released without factory testing and considered largely unusable as delivered.Much more successful was the Zone Position Indicator radar, or ZPI. A follow-on version, the MZPI, would go on to be the standard medium-range system in Canada, the UK and the US.
An office was opened in Toronto on 3 September 1940 to oversee the expansion, and the week of 14 to 20 October saw "much activity" by Howe, Sweny, Phillips and R.A. Hackbusch. Hackbusch had been hired away from Stromberg-Carlson by Phillips in order to run the electronics division.[10]
Phillips quickly produced the design for an electronics factory, initially to produce cathode ray tubes, whose lack of production was a serious problem for UK radar efforts at that time.[10] REL's existing optics side would be ideal for supporting this. A cost-plus contract for a 50,000 square feet (4,600m2) shop employing 500 workers, along with a gatehouse and cafeteria, were approved by Cabinet on 16 November. $750,000 ($10,930,851 today) was provided on 28 December. A September contract for $124,000 in machine tools was raised to $700,000. The plant would be owned by REL, but managed by General Electric.[11]
To support the opening of the factory, Phillips arranged for a number of engineers to be hosted by the NRC's Radio Branch over the winter of 1940/41 while the factory was under construction. The buildings were completed in March and the equipment installed rapidly.[10]Canada Wire and Cable, already in Leaside, began expanding with the addition of a vulcanizing drop tower to produce the insulated wires needed to carry high-voltage radar signals. Northern Electric was placed in charge of starting production of the micropup tubes used in the ASV sets as well as the cavity magnetron used in more modern designs.[11]
By August, the electronics factory already had orders totalling $36,798,000 ($536,311,277 today), mostly radar systems of UK design that were being sold to the US. However, the company quickly fell behind on their deliveries, and put the blame on a number of engineering changes ordered by the Radio Branch of the NRC.[12] A round of fingerpointing soon broke out, which had to be smoothed over by McNaughton, who made notes in his diary about his correspondence with Phillips:
and said there was a general deterioration of the nerves these days, people were tired and there was a lot of loss of control. I told him we did not intend to do anything about it, but any time he wished to check up we had facts that would be satisfactory. It was a very interesting interview.[13]
Although delivery rates began to improve, quality became a serious problem. During 1942, Mackenzie of the NRC became increasingly suspicious that Hackebusch was the ultimate cause of the problems. On 11 November 1942, Col. Wallace visited REL with two of the NRC section heads and began interviewing people on the shop floor. One superintendent admitted that Hackebusch personally ordered him to concentrate on quantity rather than quality, and that in order to improve delivery times, units were being shipped untested. It also became clear that Hackebusch had kept this from Phillips.[13]
During a visit to Ottawa in March 1943, Phillips met with Mackenzie and Wallace and agreed the problem was real, admitting "all the weaknesses of Hackbusch and [said] they are going to make a fundamental change which we all know is overdue by at least two years."[13] But it was not until 2 September that Hackbusch was gone. A week later, Wallace was given the job, although he remained Director of the Radio Branch at NRC as well. When Mackenzie visited on 30 March 1944, he reported that the company was completely reorganized.[14] Nevertheless, the setbacks proved fatal to the efforts, and was never able to deliver sets that competed with the rapidly improving designs from the UK and especially the US.[15]
By the end of the war, REL had shipped thousands of radar sets of a variety of models. Among these were the Chain Home Low systems for the US that were rushed into service in the Canal Zone,[16] as well as being the primary supplier of the UK's GL Mk. III radar system used to automatically aim anti-aircraft artillery.[17] To support their construction, the company also ran a training facility in concert with the NRC, located near today's Bluffer's Park in Scarborough.[18] The Scarborough site was used to test the pioneering DATAR computer in the 1950s.[19]
Wind-down and closure
At its peak in 1944, the company plants covered the majority of the area between Eglinton Avenue on the north, Laird Drive on the west, and Research Road on the south, along with smaller shops and storage extending to Wicksteed Avenue further south. In total, the company estate covered 55 acres (22ha), had 750,000 square feet (70,000m2) of floor space, employed 7,500 men and women (in about equal numbers), and produced $220 million ($3,206 million in 2022) worth of radar systems and optical instruments.[20] They were the largest single employer to ever operate in the Leaside area.[21]
By the middle of 1944 the Canadian Army was in combat in Europe, and was well supplied and equipped. The US had brought their own massive production capacity to bear, and were no longer placing large orders with Canadian firms. Orders for military equipment were dwindling, and in December 1944 the company laid off 1,000 workers, including 600 local residents.[22] Some of the vacated factory area was later used by another Crown Corporation, Turbo Research, but like REL they found their funding was dwindling as the war effort wound down. Turbo Research was purchased by Avro Canada in 1946 and became Orenda Engines, moving to Malton on the west side of the city.[23]
With the ending of the war there was some political debate about keeping the larger Crown companies under government control, selling them whole, or simply closing them as rapidly as possible. The later came to pass, due to a policy of not competing with private companies during peacetime,[24] and REL was shut down entirely in September 1946.[21] This was part of a wider drop in employment in the Leaside area, which dwindled from 13,290 in 1943 to 5,712 in 1946.[22]
Re-use
Parts of the REL factories were soon purchased by other companies, large and small. The optical plant was taken over by Corning Glass, who produced Pyrex at the site for many years. Portions of the electronics factory were taken over by Honeywell Controls, others were used by Rogers-Majestic (the original Rogers Communications) until that was sold to Canadian Radio Manufacturing and then again to Philips.[24] Other buildings became Lincoln Electric Motors.[22]
Philips built a new three-story executive office building on the site known as "The White House", which was officially opened by Paul Hellyer and Ontario Premier William Davis in 1966. The building's illuminated sign was a local landmark. Philips moved their operations to Scarborough in 1976.[24] Honeywell followed to Scarborough as well,[25] before closing the new plant in December 2011.[26] The Canada Wire plant moved to Markham in 1996 and is today known as Nexans North America.[27] Lincoln remains as the only major manufacturing plant in Leaside as of 2014[update], having expanded several times.
Products
One of REL's best known products were their binoculars. A common 6x30 set was produced to the extent of about 50,000 examples, while a 7x50 set added another 25,000 examples. A very small number, about six, of an experimental 20x72 were also built.[28]
Another well known REL product was a series of telescopic sights for the Lee–Enfield No. 4 MK. I* (T) sniper rifle. These were initially copies of the British model and were delivered as the C No. 32 Mk. I, but deliveries were slowed due to demands for glass and production facilities for the wide variety of instruments then under construction, everything from gunsights for tanks and artillery to observer's telescopes to the binoculars. By the end of the war, 326 C No. 32 Mk. I's had been delivered, along with 113 C No. 32 Mk. IA and 255 C No. 32 Mk. II. A quantity of C No. 32 MK. 3 telescopes were also made. Unhappy with the C No. 32, REL experimented with a number of commercial designs, and eventually delivered the C No. 67 MK. I, which was initially labelled by the British as C No. 32 MK. IV against Canadian wishes and was 10 ounces (280g) lighter than the British models.[29]
Leaside (/'liːˌsaɪd/) is an affluent neighbourhood in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It is located northeast of Downtown Toronto, in the vicinity of Eglinton Avenue East and Bayview Avenue. The area takes its name from William Lea and the Lea family, who settled there in the early years of the 19th century. The area first developed as farmland along with Toronto through the 19th century. It was incorporated as a town in 1913. In 1967, it amalgamated with the township of East York to form the borough of East York. In 1998, it became part of the city of Toronto. It is commonly seen as one of the most expensive and exclusive neighbourhoods in the city with a median household income of $129,930, serving upper-middle-class families.
Thorncliffe Park is a neighbourhood in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, in the former Borough of East York.
Defence Research and Development Canada is a special operating agency of the Department of National Defence (DND), whose purpose is to provide the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF), other government departments, and public safety and national security communities with knowledge and technology.
The Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE) was the main United Kingdom research and development organization for radio navigation, radar, infra-red detection for heat seeking missiles, and related work for the Royal Air Force (RAF) during World War II and the years that followed. It was regarded as "the most brilliant and successful of the English wartime research establishments" under "Rowe, who saw more of the English scientific choices between 1935 and 1945 than any single man."
Jane Pitfield, néeToller is a former Toronto city councillor, representing one of the two Don Valley West wards. She ran unsuccessfully for Mayor of Toronto in 2006. She is currently the warden of Pontiac Regional County Municipality, Quebec.
The Tizard Mission, officially the British Technical and Scientific Mission, was a British delegation that visited the United States during WWII to obtain the industrial resources to exploit the military potential of the research and development (R&D) work completed by the UK up to the beginning of WWII, but that Britain itself could not exploit due to the immediate requirements of war-related production. It received its popular name from the programme's instigator, Henry Tizard. Tizard was a British scientist and chairman of the Aeronautical Research Committee, which had propelled the development of radar.
HMCS Mackenzie was a Mackenzie-class destroyer that served in the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) and later the Canadian Forces. She was the lead ship of her class and is the first Canadian naval unit to carry this name. The ship was named for the Mackenzie River, the largest river system in Canada and runs primarily through the Northwest Territories.
Eric Mayorga Howlett was the inventor of the LEEP, extreme wide-angle stereoscopic optics used in photographic and virtual reality systems.
EKCO was a British electronics company producing radio and television sets from 1924 until 1960. Expanding into plastic production for its own use, Ekco Plastics produced both radio cases and later domestic plastic products; the plastics company became Lin Pac Mouldings Ltd.
Kenneth MacClure Baird is a Canadian physicist, metrologist and inventor, born of Canadian parents in China in 1923. He received his Bachelor of Science in physics at the University of New Brunswick, Canada in 1943, and joined the Canadian National Research Council (NRC) in Ottawa where he excelled at research in aerial reconnaissance and high speed photography, thereby earning him full NRC financial support for graduate studies at Bristol University, England, where he acquired his Ph.D. in solid state physics in 1952. He is the younger brother to Dr. David Baird.
John Tasker Henderson was a Canadian Physicist whose career was with the National Research Council (NRC). Educated at McGill and London, Henderson joined the NRC in 1933 where he worked on the effects of the ionosphere on radio signals and the Direction Finder invented by A.G.L. McNaughton and W.A. Steel.
Radar in World War II greatly influenced many important aspects of the conflict. This revolutionary new technology of radio-based detection and tracking was used by both the Allies and Axis powers in World War II, which had evolved independently in a number of nations during the mid 1930s. At the outbreak of war in September 1939, both Great Britain and Germany had functioning radar systems. In Great Britain, it was called RDF, Range and Direction Finding, while in Germany the name Funkmeß (radio-measuring) was used, with apparatuses called Funkmessgerät . By the time of the Battle of Britain in mid-1940, the Royal Air Force (RAF) had fully integrated RDF as part of the national air defence.
Radar, Airborne Interception, Mark IV, or AI Mk. IV for short, was the world's first operational air-to-air radar system. Early Mk. III units appeared in July 1940 on converted Bristol Blenheim light bombers, while the definitive Mk. IV reached widespread availability on the Bristol Beaufighter heavy fighter by early 1941. On the Beaufighter, the Mk. IV arguably played a role in ending the Blitz, the Luftwaffe's night bombing campaign of late 1940 and early 1941.
HMS Walmer Castle was a Castle-class corvette constructed for the British Royal Navy during the Second World War. Before completion, the ship was transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy and renamed HMCS Leaside. The corvette was used as an ocean convoy escort during the war and was sold for mercantile use following it. The ship was purchased for use as a passenger ship and renamed Coquitlam, then in 1958,Glacier Queen. In 1970 Glacier Queen was acquired for use as a floating hotel in Alaska. The ship sank in 1978 and was raised and scuttled in Alaskan waters in 1979.
Radar, Gun Laying, Mark III, or GL Mk. III for short, was a radar system used by the British Army to directly guide, or lay, anti-aircraft artillery (AA). The GL Mk. III was not a single radar, but a family of related designs that saw constant improvement during and after World War II. These were renamed shortly after their introduction in late 1942, becoming the Radar, AA, No. 3, and often paired with an early warning radar, the AA No. 4, which was also produced in several models.
Searchlight Control, SLC for short but nicknamed "Elsie", was a British Army VHF-band radar system that provided aiming guidance to an attached searchlight. By combining a searchlight with a radar, the radar did not have to be particularly accurate, it only had to be good enough to get the searchlight beam on the target. Once the target was lit, normal optical instruments could be used to guide the associated anti-aircraft artillery. This allowed the radar to be much smaller, simpler and less expensive than a system with enough accuracy to directly aim the guns, like the large and complex GL Mk. II radar. In 1943 the system was officially designated Radar, AA, No. 2, although this name is rarely used.
Radar, Air-to-Surface Vessel, Mark II, or ASV Mk. II for short, was an airborne sea-surface search radar developed by the UK's Air Ministry immediately prior to the start of World War II. It was the first aircraft mounted radar of any sort to be used operationally. It was widely used by aircraft of the RAF Coastal Command, Fleet Air Arm and similar groups in the United States and Canada. A version was also developed for small ships, the Royal Navy's Type 286.
Radar, Air-to-Surface Vessel, or ASV radar for short, is a classification used by the Royal Air Force (RAF) to refer to a series of aircraft-mounted radar systems used to scan the surface of the ocean to locate ships and surfaced submarines. The first examples were developed just before the opening of World War II and they have remained a major instrument on patrol aircraft since that time. It is part of the wider surface search radar classification, which includes similar radars in ground and ship mountings.
Radar, Air-to-Surface Vessel, Mark III, or ASV Mk. III for short, was a surface search radar system used by RAF Coastal Command during World War II. It was a slightly modified version of the H2S radar used by RAF Bomber Command, with minor changes to the antenna to make it more useful for the anti-submarine role. It was Coastal Command's primary radar from the spring of 1943 until the end of the war. Several improved versions were introduced, notably the ASV Mark VI, which replaced most Mk. IIIs from 1944 and ASV Mark VII radar, which saw only limited use until the post-war era.
DZ203, a Boeing 247 airliner, was among the most important single aircraft used in the development of various airborne radar and blind landing systems. It is particularly notable as the first aircraft to perform a completely automatic approach and landing, in January 1945.
Thompson, George Raynor; Harris, Dixie R.; Oakes, Pauline M.; Terrett, Dulany (1957). "The Call for Equipment". The Signal Corps: the Test (December 1941 to July 1943). United States Army in World War II. Vol.The Technical Services.
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