| Salsa fuliginata | |
|---|---|
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Scientific classification  | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Subphylum: | Chelicerata |
| Class: | Arachnida |
| Order: | Araneae |
| Infraorder: | Araneomorphae |
| Family: | Araneidae |
| Genus: | Salsa |
| Species: | S. fuliginata |
| Binomial name | |
| Salsa fuliginata | |
| Synonyms | |
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Salsa fuliginata, commonly known as the sooty orbweaver, is a orb-weaver spider of Araneidae in the genus Salsa . The species is found throughout southeastern Australia and New Zealand.
According to Dondale, spiderlings of Salsa fuliginata have a black and yellowish-brown carapace. [2] Spiderlings also feature a black pattern that is extended around the tip and over the ventral side on their smooth abdomen. [2] The end of the dark part of the ventral side of the abdomen contains some white spots; the spiderlings also have a much lighter colour on their legs compared to when they are an adult. When the spiderlings grow to a total length of about 2.5mm, Salsa fuliginata females will have a squared shape at the anterior of the carapace and the posterior of the abdomen will be slightly angled. [2] The carapaces of females are brownish at this size similar to males and both sexes' pattern on their abdomen bear a resemblance of an adult Salsa fuliginata. Immature males of this size have rather swollen palpi. [2]
The carapace of S. fuliginata males is usually dark brown-orange in colour and have a lustrous coat and flat yellow setae throughout the carapace. [2] [3] The chelicerae of male S. fuliginata are orange-brown with three promarginal teeth and three retromarginal teeth, where the median promarginal teeth and basal retromarginal teeth are the largest. [3] The basal of femora, trochanters and coxae are all brownish-yellow; other than these three areas, the whole leg is brown in colour. Males have a leg formula of I > II > III > IV, [3] where the longest leg is the first leg and the shortest leg is the fourth leg. The ventral portion of the cephalothorax or the sternum is brown in colour and dorsum has a beige colour to it and males also have an olive-grey irregular large folium. The lateral portion of the folium is dark brown with some black spots. [3] Underside of abdomen is dark brown followed by two white patches along the abdomen right behind the epigastric furrow. Salsa fuliginata male has a slightly curved and short paracymbium; conductor lobe is sturdy and attach to conductor from basal of embolus; median apophysis has a flat tip, has a C-shape and also lengthened, it is also basally pronounced with a reduced basal process. [3] Terminal apophysis have overall rectangular shape with a projection at the tip which looks like a thumb; conductor is weakly sclerotised and flat; embolus of the male is straight, lengthen and also pronounced. [3] According to Framenau and Pedro, males of Salsa fuliginata are mostly alike compared to Salsa recherchensis (Main, 1954) [4] in the morpohology of their genitals. [3]
Nonetheless, median apophysis in S. fuliginata is much elongated and narrow compared to S. recherchensis; The obvious spine-like prong on the terminal apophysis found in S. recherchensis is also absent in S. fuliginata. [3] Based on the research of Dondale [2] and Framenau & Pedro, [3] adult males' total length are measured to be 3.2-5.5 mm based on 18 male adult specimens.
Sexual dimorphism exists in Salsa fuliginata, where the females are generally larger than the male like most spiders. [5] Characteristics of female carapace and chelicerae are similar to male's with only one difference where three retromarginal teeth are of similar size in females. [3] Legs of female are brownish-orange and mottled in light brown; leg formula for females are the same as males, where leg lengths have the formula, I > II > IV > III. [3] Salsa fuliginata females have a dark brown labium; dark brown sternum with filled with grey setae; maxillae are brownish to dark brown; dorsal part and lateral part of abdomen are olive-grey a darker folium pattern. [3] Ventral part of abdomen is similar to males where it is dark grey-olive with elongated ovoid pale bands paired with pale band behind epigastric furrow. [3] Atrium of female Salsa fuliginata are shaped like a heart; spermatheca of the females are also spherical and huge in size. [3] At the epigyne of S. fuliginata females, the atrium is not apparent due to the rotation of the epigyne relative to the abdomen. [3] S. fuliginata females have total lengths ranging from 4.5-11.0 mm based on 30 specimens from two research studies (Dondale [2] and Framenau & Pedro [3] ).
Variation in colour patterns is vast in Salsa fuliginata, particularly in the folium, the colour shades also vary from brownish red to dark brown and light beige to orangey. [3]
Salsa fuliginata is native to Australia and believed to be introduced into New Zealand over 22 years ago. [6] Salsa fuliginata can be found in the southeast region of Australia, mainly New South Wales, Victoria, [7] Tasmania and South Australia. It is found throughout New Zealand. [3]
Since Salsa fuliginata was introduced to New Zealand, it has been distributed all around the country. Based on a citizen science site, iNaturalist NZ, Salsa fuliginata was first observed in New Zealand in November 2008 by the observer under the username of "stevenwallace". [8] The observed spider was located in Makarau, New Zealand. [8] Salsa fuliginata can be found in both the North Island and South Island. By referring to distribution records from Framenau and Pedro, [3] S. fuliginata is found mainly in Christchurch, Auckland, Wellington and also near Lake Taupō in the North Island.
Salsa fuliginata doesn't have a specific preferred habitat. [3] This species is observed in open spaces with low-lying vegetation and in various types of forests. [3] The collected specimens of Salsa fuliginata have been found in environments such as dry sclerophyll forests, open forests, bushes, shrubs, gardens, and swamps. [3]
There is not much known about the life cycle of Salsa fuliginata, but it is assumed that it has an identical life cycle with other spiders with are four main stages: eggs, spiderlings, juveniles and adults. Because Australia and New Zealand are temperate countries, the spiders' mating and egg laying happens during spring and may continue over summer. [9] After males and females mate, they split up where males will look for another mate and females will capture organisms in order to keep her developing eggs healthy. [9] After a few weeks, female spiders hang their egg sacs near their web or even in their web after laying it. [9] The eggs inside the egg sacs take about two to four weeks to hatch. [10] After spiderlings developed completely in the egg sacs, they pierce through the strong membrane of the egg sacs but it usually happens after an average of two moults happen inside the egg sacs due to the struggle to break through the strong membrane of the silken cover. [9] Once the spiderlings go through their early moults and are independent, they usually disperse swiftly through ballooning. [9] The spiderlings will then become juveniles after several moults until they reach their mature adult form, generally up to eight moults and some have molted nine times, [9] [11] which then go through the life cycle again. In temperate regions like New Zealand and Australia, most spiders live only one year or at most two years, [11] but these life cycles are only assumed for Salsa fuliginata since the life cycles of spiders has been investigated in only a minimal number of spider species. [11] Based on Framenau & Pedro, [3] Salsa fuliginata mature adults are common and mostly collected ranging from October and January. However, mature males of Salsa fuliginata reduced in the latter months especially September and February, which may indicate male's life expectancy which are usually low. However, for females they have relatively higher life expectancy, [11] which in Framenau & Pedro's research showed that there are more female Salsa fuliginata specimens than males [3]
Individuals of Salsa fuliginata are carnivores like most spiders; they feed on small insects like flies, moths, beetles and other small insects. [9] These preys are usually captured in webs. For instance, according to Geier & Briese [12] light-brown apple moth or Epiphyas postvittana , was observed being preyed on by Salsa fuliginata.
According to Keziah D'Souza, a masters student in University of Auckland, one of the species that prey on Salsa fulignata is Pison spinolae, which is more commonly known as the mason wasp. [13] Pison spinolae is native to Australia and in 1880, it was introduced to New Zealand and can be found widely throughout New Zealand. [14] Other predators of S. fuliginata could be parasitoid wasps or spider-hunting wasps; some wasps are able to lay eggs into egg sacs and their grubs can feed on the spiders' eggs when they hatch. [9]
Before Salsa fuliginata was in the genus Salsa, it was placed in the genus Cyclosa by Dondale in 1966 even though it shows more resemblance to the genus Araneus at that time compared to Cyclosa. [2] It was obvious that Salsa fuliginata did not belong in the genus, Cyclosa based on two articles from Levi, H.W. and required further revision based on molecular data. [15] [16] [17] As a result, the species was then placed in the genus Salsa after further revision. [3]
Wolf spiders are members of the family Lycosidae. They are robust and agile hunters with excellent eyesight. They live mostly in solitude, hunt alone, and usually do not spin webs. Some are opportunistic hunters, pouncing upon prey as they find it or chasing it over short distances; others wait for passing prey in or near the mouth of a burrow.
Orb-weaver spiders are members of the spider family Araneidae. They are the most common group of builders of spiral wheel-shaped webs often found in gardens, fields, and forests. The English word "orb" can mean "circular", hence the English name of the group. Araneids have eight similar eyes, hairy or spiny legs, and no stridulating organs.
The Australian garden orb weaver spider is a very common species of spider with many variants in size, shape, and colour across the coastal and northern regions of Australia. They have very large abdomens when well-fed and exhibit a tremendous colour-range from off-white through tan, brown to almost black. They have a roughly leaf-shaped pattern on the top of their abdomen with a complex outline that is darker than the surrounding area. There may also be several whitish spots or one or more stripes. The spiders' cephalothoraxes (heads) and proximal leg segments are usually darker, mostly reddish or reddish brown. They are able to change their colour with each moult to better match the background upon which they rest during the day.
Austracantha is a genus of spider with a single species, Austracantha minax, commonly known as the jewel spider or the Christmas spider. It is a member of the family Araneidae and is endemic to Australia. They are relatively small spiders, reaching a maximum total body length of only around 12 mm (0.47 in) for females, and 5 mm (0.20 in) for males. Their abdomen has six distinctive projections ("spines") that makes them easy to identify. They are predominantly a shiny black, with variable white, yellow, and orange patterns. Melanistic forms also occur during autumn. They are facultatively gregarious, and can be found in large aggregations of overlapping orb webs. They feed on small flying insects that get entangled in their webs. They are harmless to humans, though the webs can be a nuisance for bushwalkers. They are most abundant during the summer months.
Araniella cucurbitina, sometimes called the "cucumber green spider", is a spider of the family Araneidae. Araniella cucurbitina is found across Europe, Western Asia, Central Asia and Japan. The cucurbitina in the name comes from the word cucurbit which is a family of plants including cucumbers.
Zygiella x-notata, sometimes known as the missing sector orb weaver or the silver-sided sector spider, is a spider species in the family Araneidae. They are solitary spiders, residing in daily spun orb webs. Z. x-notata is a member of the genus Zygiella, the orb-weaving spiders. The adult female is easily recognized by the characteristic leaf-like mark on her posterior opisthosoma, caudal to the yellow-brown cephalothorax.
Argiope protensa, commonly known as the tailed grass spider or teardrop spider, is a species of spider in the orb weaver family, Araneidae. This species is fairly common and widespread in Australasia, but like many spider species, little is known of its ecology, biology, or life history.
Argiope anasuja, is a species of harmless orb-weaver spider found from the Seychelles to India, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Maldives and in the Brazil.
Metepeira labyrinthea, the labyrinth orbweaver, is a spider, with thin legs and a round, bulbous abdomen It is a member of the genus Metepeira in the family Araneidae. The female’s length is 5.3 mm, its carapace 2.3 mm, abdomen 3.3 mm, and extended legs 18.4 mm. The carapace is brown or gray, and the abdomen is dark with a white pattern. The legs alternate pale brown and dark brown, and the sternum is dark brown with a longitudinal yellow mark. The male spider is three-quarters of the female’s length, or slightly larger, with a darker carapace and with greater contrast between dark and light areas of the legs. Metepeira are easily distinguished from other Araneidae by their light eye region, white median line on the sternum, relative length of the leg segments, small male palpus, weakly sclerotized epigyne and the special composite web.
This glossary describes the terms used in formal descriptions of spiders; where applicable these terms are used in describing other arachnids.
Socca pustulosa is a Orb-weaver spider species in the family Araneidae, and it was first described by a French scientist Charles Athanase Walckenaer in 1841 from Tasmania, Australia, but later on when Walckenaer examined the specimen collected from New Zealand and renamed it as a different species- Epeira verrucosa. Until 1917, Dalmas reviewed the Australian pustulosa and New Zealand verrucosa and realized they were the same species. Although S. pustulosa has been accepted for some time in the genus of Eriophora, the evidence supporting its placement within this genus were not fully convincing. Therefore, an alternative view was proposed in 2022- a new genus established to accommodate pustulosa along with 11 other spider species from Australia; the diagnostic test based on haplotype analysis and systematic morphology study by arachnologists and found the anatomical features of male pedipalp terminal apophysis differs from other orb-web species.
Allocyclosa is a genus of orb weaver spiders that contains only one species, Allocyclosa bifurca. It was first described in 1887 by McCook under the name Cyrtophora bifurca, and was transferred to its own genus in 1999. It is the only Cyclosa species north of Mexico to have a forked rear tip of the abdomen hence the name bifurca, Latin for "two-pronged". The forked tip of the abdomen, bearing two humps shaped like the letter M, is a defining feature in both males and females, though it is similar to features present in certain Cyrtophora species. Both sexes are a grey-green color, though only females have an area of red on their underside between the epigynum and the spinnerets. Females are much larger than males, ranging from five to nine millimeters, while males range from two to three millimeters. Males appear to be very uncommon, but they are probably often overlooked by collectors due to their small size. In a 1977 study by Levi, only two of the nearly 350 specimens that were positively identified as Cyrtophora bifurca were males. This is a very unusual distribution; a second, less likely explanation that has been proposed is that females of the species, which have less prominent genitalia compared with those of other members of the orb-weaver family, may be parthenogenic, are able to reproduce without the help of males. Like most other members of Araneidae, these spiders build orb webs, six to eight inches in diameter, but employ an unusual form of protective mimicry. Females often sit in the middle of a vertical row of web decoration that include egg sacs and wrapped prey. Because the spider and the egg sacs have a similar color and shape, it is difficult to distinguish the egg sacs from the spider itself.
Larinia jeskovi is a species of the family of orb weaver spiders and a part of the genus Larinia. It is distributed throughout the Americas, Africa, Australia, Europe, and Asia and commonly found in wet climes such as marshes, bogs, and rainforests. Larinia jeskovi have yellow bodies with stripes and range from 5.13 to 8.70 millimeters in body length. They build their webs on plants with a small height above small bodies of waters or wetlands. After sunset and before sunrise are the typical times they hunt and build their web. Males usually occupy a female's web instead of making their own. The mating behavior is noteworthy as male spiders often mutilate external female genitalia to reduce sperm competition while female spiders resort to sexual cannibalism to counter such mechanisms. The males also follow an elaborate courtship ritual to attract the female. The bite of Larinia jeskovi is not known to be of harm to humans.
Cladomelea akermani is a species of spider in the orb-weaver spider family Araneidae, found in South Africa. Cladomelea species, including C. akermani, are "bolas spiders" – adult females capture their prey by using a sticky drop on the end of a single line which they swing, usually catching male moths attracted by the release of an analogue of the attractant sex pheromone produced by the female moth. Juvenile and adult male bolas spiders do not use a bolas, catching prey with their legs alone.
Cladomelea debeeri is a species of spider in the orb-weaver spider family Araneidae, found in South Africa. It was first described in 2004. Cladomelea species, including C. debeeri, are "bolas spiders" – adult females capture their prey by using one or more sticky drops on the end of a line which they swing, usually catching male moths attracted by the release of an analogue of the attractant sex pheromone produced by the female moth. Juvenile and adult male bolas spiders do not use a bolas, catching prey with their legs alone.
Cyrtarachne inaequalis is a species of spider in the orb-weaver spider family Araneidae, found in India, Myanmar, China and Korea. Spiders in the genus Cyrtarachne construct "spanning-thread webs" rather than the more typical orb webs of the family Araneidae. These webs have a small number of radii and instead of a tight spiral of sticky threads, the sticky spanning threads are widely spaced and do not form a spiral. When prey is caught on one of the spanning threads, one end comes loose, and the prey, often a moth, dangles from the other end until hauled in by the spider.
Cyrtarachne nagasakiensis is a species of spider in the orb-weaver spider family Araneidae, found in Pakistan, India, China, Korea and Japan. Spiders in the genus Cyrtarachne construct "spanning-thread webs" rather than the more typical orb webs of the family Araneidae. These webs have a small number of radii and instead of a tight spiral of sticky threads, the sticky spanning threads are widely spaced and do not form a spiral. When prey is caught on one of the spanning threads, one end comes loose, and the prey, often a moth, dangles from the other end until hauled in by the spider.
Cyrtarachne yunoharuensis is a species of spider in the orb-weaver spider family Araneidae, found in China, Korea and Japan. Spiders in the genus Cyrtarachne construct "spanning-thread webs" rather than the more typical orb webs of the family Araneidae. These webs have a small number of radii and instead of a tight spiral of sticky threads, the sticky spanning threads are widely spaced and do not form a spiral. When prey is caught on one of the spanning threads, one end comes loose, and the prey, often a moth, dangles from the other end until hauled in by the spider.
Ordgarius sexspinosus is a species of spider in the orb-weaver spider family Araneidae, found from India to Japan and Indonesia. O. sexspinosus is a bolas spider. Rather than using a web, adult females catch their prey by using a line with one or two sticky drops which they swing.
Salsa is an Australasian genus of orb-weaver spiders.
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