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Sanskrit has inherited from its reconstructed parent the Proto-Indo-European language an elaborate system of nominal morphology. Endings may be added directly to the root, or more frequently and especially in the later language, to a stem formed by the addition of a suffix to it. [1]
Sanskrit is a highly inflected language that preserves all the declensional types found in Proto-Indo-European, including a few residual heteroclitic r/n-stems. [2] [3]
Declension of a noun in Sanskrit [lower-greek 1] involves the interplay of two 'dimensions': three numbers and eight cases, yielding a combination of 24 possible forms, although owing to syncretism of some forms, the practical number is around 18 or so. [4] Further, nouns themselves in Sanskrit, like its parent Proto-Indo-European, can be in one of three genders.
In addition, adjectives behave much the same way morphologically as nouns do, and can conveniently be considered together. While the same noun cannot be seen to be of more than one gender, adjectives change gender on the basis of the noun they are being applied to, along with case and number, thus giving the following variables: [5] [6]
1 | 3 numbers [lower-greek 2] | singular [lower-greek 3] , dual [lower-greek 4] , plural [lower-greek 5] |
2 | 3 genders [lower-greek 6] | masculine [lower-greek 7] , feminine [lower-greek 8] , neuter [lower-greek 9] |
3 | 8 cases [lower-greek 10] | nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative, vocative |
The oldest system of declension was to affix the endings [lower-greek 11] directly to the nominal root. This was an ancient feature already in decline in later Proto-Indo-European. Of the daughter languages, this system has been best preserved by Sanskrit, especially the older form of Indo-Aryan termed Vedic Sanskrit. [7]
Sanskrit | Latin | PIE | Glossary |
---|---|---|---|
pā́d- | pē(d)s, ped- | *póds | foot [lower-alpha 1] |
vā́c- | vōx, vōc- | *wṓkʷs | speech |
rā́j- | rēx, rēg- | *h₃rḗǵs | king, ruler [lower-alpha 1] |
In Proto-Indo-European, a new system developed wherein an intermediary called the thematic vowel is inserted to the root before the final endings are appended: *-o- which in Sanskrit becomes -a-, producing the thematic stem.
Declension of a thematic stem is less complicated as a host of Sandhi rules apply no more, and the later stages of the Sanskrit language see an increase in the profusion of thematic nouns. Thus in classical Sanskrit, the thematic pā́da-s is more likely to be found than its athematic predecessor. [8] [9]
Sanskrit nouns are declined for eight cases:
In the ancient literature, Pāṇini identified six classes as kārakas, [lower-alpha 2] operating as accessories to a verb. The six kārakas are the nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, and locative cases. [11] He defined them as follows (Aṣtādhyāyi, I.4.24–54):
Pāṇini did not identify the genitive Sambandha and vocative Sambodhana as kārakas. [13]
The basic scheme of suffixion [lower-greek 12] is given in the table below and applies to many nouns and adjectives.
However, according to the gender and the final consonant or vowel of the uninflected word-stem, there are internal sandhi rules dictating the form of the inflected word. Furthermore, these are standalone forms, which when used in actual phrases are subject to external sandhi, such as, the mutation of -s to -ḥ or -r and so on. [15] [16]
Singular | Dual | Plural | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masc./Fem | Neu. | Masc./Fem | Neu. | Masc./Fem | Neu. | |
Nominative | -s | -∅ | -au | -ī | -as | -i |
Accusative | -am | |||||
Instrumental | -ā | -bhyām | -bhis | |||
Dative | -e | -bhyas | ||||
Ablative | -as | |||||
Genitive | -os | -ām | ||||
Locative | -i | -su |
Substantives may be divided into different classes on the basis of the stem vowel before they are declined on the above basis. The general classification is:
When the nominal endings are being affixed to a noun of each class, they may undergo, in some cases, some changes, including being entirely replaced by other forms. This happens most profusely in the a-stem class. However, for reasons noted below, grammars both traditional and modern tend to start with this class. [17] [18] [19]
The vast majority of nouns in Sanskrit belong to this class, and are masculine or neuter. The position of the accent is maintained throughout, except in the masculine vocative singular. The paradigms are illustrated in their pre-sandhi forms, along with the formation treatment using two stems in the masculine devá- [upper-alpha 1] [lower-alpha 9] and kā́ma- [upper-alpha 2] and two in the neuter yugá- [upper-alpha 3] [lower-alpha 1] and phála- [upper-alpha 4] with different syllables accented. [20] [21] [22] [23]
a-stem adjectives are also to be found in big numbers, they are invariably masculine or neuter – feminines being formed either in -ā or, less frequently -ī. a-stem adjectives are also declined as below. [24]
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | dev·á- | kā́m·a- |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative | -s | -a- + -s | -as | dev·á·s | kā́m·a·s |
Accusative | -am | -a- + - | -am | dev·á·m | kā́m·a·m |
Instrumental | -ā | -ena | dev·éna | kā́m·ena | |
Dative | -e | -a- + -a- + e + a | -āya | dev·ā́ya | kā́m·āya |
Ablative | -as | -āt | dev·ā́t | kā́m·āt | |
Genitive | -as | -as + ya | -asya | dev·ásya | kā́m·asya |
Locative | -i | -a- + -i | -e | dev·é | kā́m·e |
Vocative [lower-alpha 10] | -Ø | – | -a | dév·a | kā́m·a |
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | dev·á- | kā́m·a- |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative Accusative Vocative | -au | -au | -au | dev·áu | kā́m·au |
Instrumental Dative Ablative | -bhyām | -ā- + bhyām | -ābhyām | dev·ā́bhyām | kā́m·ābhyām |
Genitive Locative | -os | -a- + -y- + -os | -ayos | dev·á·yos | kā́m·a·yos |
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | dev·á- | kā́m·a- |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative, Vocative | -as | -a- + -as | -ās | dev·ā́s | kā́m·ās |
Accusative | -as | -ān (-āṅs [lower-alpha 11] ) | dev·ā́n | kā́m·ān | |
Instrumental | -bhis | -ais | dev·aís | kā́m·ais | |
Dative Ablative | -bhyas | -a- + -i- + -bhyas | -ebhyas | dev·ébhyas | kā́m·ebhyas |
Genitive | -ām | -ā- + -n- + ām | -ānām | dev·ā́nām | kā́m·ānām |
Locative | -su | -a- + -i- + su | -eṣu | dev·éṣu | kā́m·eṣu |
Neuters only differ from the masculine in the nominative and accusative forms, the two forms always being the same:
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | yug·á- | phál·a- |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nom, Acc SG | -Ø | -a- + -m | -am | yug·á·m | phál·a·m |
Nom, Acc DU | -ī | -a- + -ī | -e | yug·é | phál·e |
Nom, Acc PL | -i | -a- + an + -i | -āni | yug·ā́ni | phál·āni |
Final i-stem endings are closer to the standard set compared to the a-stem declension. In general, the -i is gunated in some cases, and a -n- is inserted intervocalically between the stem and the ending in a few other cases, especially in the neuter. The paradigms are illustrated here in their pre-sandhi forms for masculine agní- , [upper-alpha 5] [lower-alpha 12] feminine gáti- [upper-alpha 6] [lower-alpha 1] and neuter vā́ri- . [upper-alpha 7] [26] [27]
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | agní- | gáti- |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nom | -s | – | -s | agní·s | gáti·s |
Acc | -am | - | -m | agní·m | gáti·m |
Ins | -ā | -n- + -ā – | -nā -ā | agní-nā | gáty·ā |
Da | -e | guna(i) + e | -aye | agn·áy·e | gát·ay·e |
Abl, Gen | -as | guna(i) + s -i- + -a- + -as | -es [lower-alpha 13] | agn·és | gát·es gáty·ās |
Loc | -i | -au | agn·aú | gát·au | |
Voc | -Ø | – | -e | ágn·e | gát·e |
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | agní- | gáti- |
N.A.V | -au | -ī | agn·ī́ | gát·ī | |
I.D.A | -bhyām | – | -bhyām | agní·bhyām | gáti·bhyām |
Gen, Loc | -os | -i- + -os | -yos | agny·ós | gáty·os |
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | agní- | gáti- |
Nom, Voc | -as | guna(i) + -as | -ayas | agn·áy·as | gát·ay·as |
Acc | -as | -īn (-īṅs [lower-alpha 11] ) | agn·ī́n | gát·īn | |
Ins | -bhis | – | -bhis | agní·bhis | gáti·bhis |
Dat, Abl | -bhyas | – | -bhyas | agní·bhyas | gáti·bhyas |
Gen | -ām | -ī + -n- ām | -īnām | agn·īnā́m | gát·īnām |
Loc | -su | – | -su | agní·ṣu | gáti·ṣu |
Neuters as always remain identical in the nominative and accusative, and also in the vocative. In the other cases, a -n- [lower-alpha 14] [lower-greek 13] is inserted between the stem and the standard endings in all those cases where to avoid a collision of two vowels, making the whole process almost perfectly straightforward.
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | vā́ri- |
---|---|---|---|---|
N.A.V | -Ø | – | -Ø | vā́ri |
Ins | -ā | -n- | -nā | vā́ri·ṇ·ā |
Dat | -e | -n- | -ne | vā́ri·ṇ·e |
Abl,Gen | -as | -n- | -nas | vā́ri·ṇ·as |
Loc | -i | -n- | -ni | vā́ri·ṇ·i |
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | vā́ri- |
N.A.V | -ī | -n- | -nī | vā́ri·ṇ·ī |
I.D.A | -bhyām | – | -bhyām | vā́ri·bhyām |
Gen, Loc | -os | -n- | -nos | vā́ri·ṇ·os |
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | vā́ri- |
N.A.V | -i | -īni | -īni | vā́rī·ṇ·i |
Ins | -bhis | – | -bhis | vā́ri·bhis |
Dat, Abl | -bhyas | – | -bhyas | vā́ri·bhyas |
Gen | -ām | -ī + -n- ām | -īnām | vā́r·īṇām |
Loc | -su | – | -su | vā́ri·ṣu |
i- and u-stem declensions are so similar that they can be grouped together. The u-stem paradigms illustrated here in their pre-sandhi forms are for masculine śátru- , [upper-alpha 8] feminine dhenú- [upper-alpha 9] and neuter mádhu- . [upper-alpha 10] [lower-alpha 1] [28] [29]
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | śátru- | dhenú- |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nom | -s | – | -s | śátru·s | dhenú·s |
Acc | -am | - | -m | śátru·m | dhenú·m |
Ins | -ā | -n- + -ā – | -nā -ā | śátru-ṇā | dhenv·ā̀ |
Dat | -e | guna(u) + e | -ave | śátr·av·e | dhen·áv·e |
Abl, Gen | -as | guna(u) + s -u- + -a- + -as [lower-alpha 13] | -os | śátr·os | dhen·ós dhenv·ā̀s |
Loc | -i | -au | śátr·au | dhen·aú | |
Voc | -Ø | – | -o | śátr·o | dhen·ó |
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | śátru- | dhenú- |
N.A.V | -au | -ū | śátr·ū | dhen·ū́ | |
I.D.A | -bhyām | – | -bhyām | śátru·bhyām | dhenú·bhyām |
Gen, Loc | -os | -u- + -os | -vos | śátrv·os | dhenv·ós |
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | śátru- | dhenú- |
Nom, Voc | -as | guna(u) + -as | -avas | śátr·av·as | dhen·áv·as |
Acc | -as | -ūs | -ūn (-ūṅs [lower-alpha 11] ) -ūs | śátr·ūn | dhen·ū́s |
Ins | -bhis | – | -bhis | śátru·bhis | dhenú·bhis |
Dat, Abl | -bhyas | – | -bhyas | śátru·bhyas | dhenú·bhyas |
Gen | -ām | -ū + -n- ām | -ūnām | śátr·ūṇām | dhen·ūnā́m |
Loc | -su | – | -su | śátru·ṣu | dhenú·ṣu |
Neuters are also just as straightforward as for i-stems.
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | mádhu- |
---|---|---|---|---|
N.A.V | -Ø | – | -Ø | mádhu |
Ins | -ā | -n- | -nā | mádhu·n·ā |
Dat | -e | -n- | -ne | mádhu·n·e |
Abl, Gen | -as | -n- | -nas | mádhu·n·as |
Loc | -i | -n- | -ni | mádhu·n·i |
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | mádhu- |
N.A.V | -ī | -n- | -nī | mádhu·n·ī |
I.D.A | -bhyām | – | -bhyām | mádhu·bhyām |
Gen, Loc | -os | -n- | -nos | mádhu·n·os |
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | mádhu- |
N.A.V | -i | -ūni | mádhū·n·i | |
Ins | -bhis | – | -bhis | mádhu·bhis |
Dat, Abl | -bhyas | – | -bhyas | mádhu·bhyas |
Gen | -ām | -ū + -n- ām | -ūnām | mádh·ūnām |
Loc | -su | – | -su | mádhu·ṣu |
i- and u-stem adjectives are a small class of so—called primary adjectives, such as bahus, -us, -u [upper-alpha 11] and śucis, -is, -i , [upper-alpha 12] as well as ones adapted from nouns like bahuvrīhis. They are inflected like the i- and u-stem nouns described above; occasionally the feminine u may gain an additional ī and become vī. [30]
ṛ-stems are predominantly agental derivatives like dātṛ , [upper-alpha 13] though also include kinship terms like pitṛ , [upper-alpha 14] [lower-alpha 1] mātṛ , [upper-alpha 15] [lower-alpha 1] and svasṛ . [upper-alpha 16] [lower-alpha 1] [31] The neuter equivalents of derivative agental nouns once again form secondary stems in -n, as in the -i and -u classes.
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | dātṛ́- | svásṛ- | pitṛ́- | dhātṛ́- [upper-alpha 17] [lower-alpha 15] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nom | -s | vṛddhi(ṛ) ( | -ā | dātā́ | svásā́ | pitā́ | dhātṛ́ |
Acc | -am | vṛddhi(ṛ) + -am guna(ṛ) + -am [lower-alpha 16] | -āram -aram | dāt·ā́r·am | svás·ār·am | pit·ár·am | dhātṛ́ |
Ins | -ā | -ā | dātr·ā́ | svásr·ā | pitr·ā́ | dhātṛ́·ṇ·ā | |
Dat | -e | -e | dātr·é | svásr·e | pitr·é | dhātṛ́·ṇ·e | |
Abl, Gen | -as | -ur | dāt·úr | svás·ur | pit·úr | dhātṛ́·ṇ·as | |
Loc | -i | guna(ṛ) + -i | -ari | dāt·ár·i | svás·ar·i | pit·ár·i | dhātṛ́·ṇ·i |
Voc [lower-alpha 10] | -Ø | guna(ṛ) | -ar | dā́t·ar | svás·ar | pít·ar | dhā́tṛ, dhā́tar |
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | dātṛ́- | svásṛ- | pitṛ́- | dhātṛ́ |
N.A.V | -au | vṛddhi/guna(ṛ) + -au | -ārau / -arau | dāt·ā́r·au | svás·ār·au | pit·ár·au | dhātṛ́·ṇ·ī |
I.D.A | -bhyām | – | -bhyām | dātṛ́·bhyām | svásṛ·bhyām | pitṛ́·bhyām | dhātṛ́·bhyām |
Gen, Loc | -os | ṛ + -os | -ros | dātr·ós | svásr·os | pitr·ós | dhātṛ́·ṇ·os |
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | dātṛ́- | svásṛ- | pitṛ́- | dhātṛ́ |
N.V | -as | vṛddhi/guna(ṛ) + -as | -āras / -aras | dāt·ār·as | svás·ār·as | pit·ar·as | dhātṝ́́·ṇ·i |
Acc | -as | -ṝn (-ṝṅs [lower-alpha 11] ) | dāt·ṝ́n | svás·ṝn | pit·ṝ́n | dhātṝ́́·ṇ·i | |
Ins | -bhis | – | -bhis | dātṛ́·bhis | svásṛ·bhis | pitṛ́·bhis | dhātṛ́·bhis |
Dat, Abl | -bhyas | – | -bhyas | dātṛ́·bhyas | svásṛ·bhyas | pitṛ́·bhyas | dhātṛ́·bhyas |
Gen | -ām | -ṛ/ṝ + -n- ām | -ṛ/ṝṇām [lower-greek 14] | dāt·ṝṇā́m | svás·ṝṇām | pit·ṝṇā́m | dhāt·ṝṇā́m |
Loc | -su | – | -su | dātṛ́·ṣu | svásṛ·ṣu | pitṛ́·ṣu | dhātṛ́·ṣu |
A single irregular i-stem noun, [32] sakhi , [upper-alpha 18] [lower-alpha 17] has a stem in -i but declines similarly to the above – simply with y i ī taking the place of r ṛ ṝ:
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nom | sákh·ā | sákh·āy·au | sákh·āy·as |
Acc | sákh·āy·am | sákh·īn | |
Ins | sákhy·ā | sákhi·bhyām | sákhi·bhis |
Dat | sákhy·e | sákhi·bhy·as | |
Abl | sákh·ay·ur | ||
Gen | sákhy·os | sákh·īnām | |
Loc | sákhy·au, sákh·ay·i | sákhi·ṣu | |
Voc | sákh·e | sákh·āy·au | sákh·āy·as |
This category is made of ā-, ī- and ū-stems, almost entirely feminine, polysyllabic derivative nouns. [33]
A few forms deviate from the standard in many of which an interspersed -y- can be observed. The vocative also undergoes the usual accent shift. [34] [35]
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | sénā- [upper-alpha 19] | kanyā̀- [upper-alpha 20] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nom | -s | -ā | sénā | kanyā̀ | |
Acc | -am | -ām | sénā·m | kanyā̀·m | |
Ins | -ā | -ayā | sén·ay·ā | kany·ày·ā | |
Dat | -e | -ā + y +vṛddhi(e) | -āyai | sénā·yai | kanyā̀·yai |
Abl, Gen | -as | -ā + y + vṛddhi(a)s | -āyās | sénā·yās | kanyā̀·yās |
Loc | -i | -āyām | sénā·yām | kanyā̀·yām | |
Voc [lower-alpha 10] | -Ø | -e | -e | sén·e | kány·e |
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | sénā- | kanyà- |
N.A.V | -au | -e | sé·ne | kany·è | |
I.D.A | -bhyām | -bhyām | sénā·bhyām | kanyā̀·bhyām | |
Gen, Loc | -os | e + -os | -ayos | sén·ay·os | kany·ày·os |
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | sénā- | kanyā̀- |
Nom, Voc | -as | -ā + as | -ās | sénā·s | kanyā̀·s |
Acc | -as | -ā + as | -ās | sénā·s | kanyā̀·s |
Ins | -bhis | -bhis | sénā·bhis | kanyā̀·bhis | |
Dat, Abl | -bhyas | -bhyas | sénā·bhyas | kanyā̀·bhyas | |
Gen | -ām | -ā + -n- + -ām | -ānām | sénā·nām | kanyā̀·nām |
Loc | -su | -su | sénā·su | kanyā̀·su |
Again most ī- and ū-stem nouns are feminine. [36] [37] ī- and ū-stem adjectives also belong here. [38]
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | devī́- [upper-alpha 21] | vadhū́- [upper-alpha 22] [lower-alpha 1] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nom | -s | [lower-alpha 18] | devī́ | vadhū́·s | |
Acc | -am | -īm, -ūm | devī́·m | vadhū́·m | |
Ins | -ā | -ā | devy·ā̀ | vadhv·ā̀ | |
Dat | -e | vṛddhi(e) | -ai | devy·aì | vadhv·aì |
Abl, Gen | -as | vṛddhi(a)s | -ās | devy·ā̀s | vadhv·ā̀s |
Loc | -i | -ām | devy·ā̀m | vadhv·ā̀m | |
Voc [lower-alpha 10] | -Ø | [lower-alpha 19] | dévi | vádhu | |
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | devī- | vadhū- |
N.A.V | -au | -au | devy·aù | vadhv·aù | |
I.D.A | -bhyām | -bhyām | devī́·bhyām | vadhū́·bhyām | |
Gen, Loc | -os | -os | devy·òs | vadhv·òs | |
Case | Std Ending | Treatment | Ending | devī- | vadhū- |
Nom, Voc | -as | -as | devy·às | vadhv·às | |
Acc | -as | -īs, -ūs | devī́·s | vadhū́·s | |
Ins | -bhis | -bhis | devī́·bhis | vadhū́·bhis | |
Dat, Abl | -bhyas | -bhyas | devī́·bhyas | vadhū́·bhyas | |
Gen | -ām | -n- + -ām | -nām | devī́·nām | vadhū́·nām |
Loc | -su | -su | devī́·ṣu | vadhū́·ṣu |
Stems ending in Sanskrit diphthongs (e, ai, o, au) follow a fairly regular pattern, whilst subject to sandhi rules as usual. [39] [40]
Case | Std Ending | se | raí [upper-alpha 23] [lower-alpha 20] | gó [upper-alpha 24] [lower-alpha 1] | naú [upper-alpha 25] [lower-alpha 21] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nom | -s | se·s | rā́·s | gaú·s | naú·s |
Acc | -am | say·am | rā́y·am | gā́·m | nā́v·am |
Ins | -ā | say·ā | rāy·ā́ | gáv·ā | nāv·ā́ |
Dat | -e | say·e | rāy·é | gáv·e | nāv·é |
Abl, Gen | -as | se·s | rāy·ás | gó·s | nāv·ás |
Loc | -i | say·i | rāy·í | gáv·i | nāv·í |
Voc | -Ø | se | rā́·s | gaú·s | naú·s |
Case | Std Ending | se | raí | gó | naú |
N.A.V | -au | say·au | rā́y·au | gā́v·au | nā́v·au |
I.D.A | -bhyām | se·bhyām | rā·bhyā́m | gó·bhyām | nau·bhyā́m |
Gen, Loc | -os | say·os | rāy·ós | gáv·os | nāv·ós |
Case | Std Ending | se | raí | gó | naú |
Nom, Voc | -as | say·as | rā́y·as | gā́v·as | nā́v·as |
Acc | -as | say·as | rā́y·as | gā́·s | nā́v·as |
Ins | -bhis | se·bhis | rā·bhís | gó·bhis | nau·bhís |
Dat, Abl | -bhyas | se·bhyas | rā·bhyás | gó·bhyas | nau·bhyás |
Gen | -ām | say·ām | rāy·ā́m | gáv·ām | nāv·ā́m |
Loc | -su | se·ṣu | rā·sú | gó·ṣu | nau·ṣú |
Consonant stem nouns may have up to 3 different stems, as well as two special forms:
One or more of these stems may be identical for some words, but this is generally not regularly predictable from either the nominative singular or the citation form stem. While the stem ending may undergo expected internal sandhi changes as normal, the endings themselves are gracefully regular. [41] [42]
Case | Ending | marút m. [upper-alpha 26] | trivṛ́t n. [upper-alpha 27] | mánas n. [upper-alpha 28] [lower-alpha 1] | havís n. [upper-alpha 29] | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nom | marút | trivṛ́t | mánas | havís | ||
Acc | -am | marút·am | ||||
Ins | -ā | marút·ā | trivṛ́t·ā | mánas·ā | havíṣ·ā | |
Dat | -e | marút·e | trivṛ́t·e | mánas·e | havíṣ·e | |
Abl, gen | -as | marút·as | trivṛ́t·as | mánas·as | havíṣ·as | |
Loc | -i | marút·i | trivṛ́t·i | mánas·i | havíṣ·i | |
Voc | -Ø | márut | trívṛt | mánas | hávis | |
Case | Ending | marút | trivṛ́t | mánas | havís | |
N.A.V | -au, -ī | marút·au | trivṛ́t·au | mánas·ī | havíṣ·ī | |
I.D.A | -bhyām | marúd·bhyām | trivṛ́d·bhyām | máno·bhyām | havír·bhyām | |
Gen, loc | -os | marút·os | trivṛ́t·os | mánas·os | havíṣ·os | |
Case | Ending | marút | trivṛ́t | mánas | havís | |
Nom, voc | -as, -āni, etc | marút·as | trivṛ́nti | mánāṅsi | havī́ṅṣi | |
Acc | -as, -āni, etc | marút·as | ||||
Ins | -bhis | marúd·bhis | trivṛ́d·bhis | máno·bhis | havír·bhis | |
Dat, abl | -bhyas | marúd·bhyas | trivṛ́d·bhyas | máno·bhyas | havír·bhyas | |
Gen | -ām | marút·ām | trivṛ́t·ām | mánas·ām | havíṣ·ām | |
Loc | -su | marút·su | trivṛ́t·su | mánaḥ·su | havíḥ·su |
an-stem nouns and in-stem adjectives (occurring prolifically in masc. and neu.) show very similar behavior and can be grouped together: [43]
Case | Ending | rā́jan [upper-alpha 30] | ātmán [upper-alpha 31] | nāman [upper-alpha 32] [lower-alpha 1] | balín [upper-alpha 33] m.n. | yogín [upper-alpha 34] m.n. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nom | -s | rā́jā | ātmā́ | nā́ma | balī́, balí | yogī́, yogí | |
Acc | -am | rā́jān·am | ātmā́n·am | nā́ma | balín·am, balí | yogín·am, yogí | |
Ins | -ā | rā́jñ·ā | ātmán·ā | nā́mn·ā | balín·ā | yogín·ā | |
Dat | -e | rā́jñ·e | ātmán·e | nā́mn·e | balín·e | yogín·e | |
Abl, gen | -as | rā́jñ·as | ātmán·as | nā́mn·as | balín·as | yogín·as | |
Loc | -i | rā́jn·i, rā́jan·i | ātmán·i | nā́mn·i, nā́man·i | balín.i | yogín·i | |
Voc [lower-alpha 10] | -Ø | rā́jan | ā́tman | nā́man, nā́ma | bálin, báli | yógin, yógi | |
Case | Ending | rā́jan | ātmán | nā́man | balín | yogín | |
N.A.V | -au | rā́jān·au | ātmán·au | nā́mn·ī, nā́man·ī | balín·au, balín·ī | yogín·au, yogín·ī | |
I.D.A | -bhyām | rā́ja·bhyām | ātmá·bhyām | nā́ma·bhyām | balí·bhyām | yogí·bhyām | |
Gen, loc | -os | rā́jṇ·os | ātmán·os | nā́mn·os | balín·os | yogín·os | |
Case | Std Ending | rā́jan | ātmán | nā́man | balín | yogín | |
Nom, voc | -as | rā́jān·as | ātmā́n·as | nā́m·āni | balín·as, balín·i | yogín·as, yogín·i | |
Acc | -as | rā́jñ·as | ātmán·as | nā́m·āni | balín·as | yogín·as | |
Ins | -bhis | rā́ja·bhis | ātmá·bhis | nā́ma·bhis | balí·bhis | yogí·bhis | |
Dat, abl | -bhyas | rā́ja·bhyas | ātmá·bhyas | nā́ma·bhyas | balí·bhyas | yogí·bhyas | |
Gen | -ām | rā́jñ·ām | ātmán·ām | nā́mn·ām | balín·ām | yogín·ām | |
Loc | -su | rā́ja·su | ātmá·su | nā́ma·su | balí·ṣu | yogí·ṣu |
Participial forms in -ant/-at decline as below, with some stem variation with the -n-. [44] Possessives in -mant and vant- display similar behavior, the difference that stands out is the nom. sing. masc. -mān & -vān. [45] Forms not mentioned fit the existing pattern with full regularity:
Case | Ending | bháv·ant- [upper-alpha 35] m.n. | ad·ánt- [upper-alpha 36] m.n. | júhv·at- [upper-alpha 37] m.n. | paśu·mánt- [upper-alpha 38] m.n. | bhága·vant- [upper-alpha 39] [lower-alpha 22] m.n. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nom | -s | bháv·an, bháv·at | ad·án, adát | júhv·an, júhv·at | paśu·mā́n, paśu·mát | bhága·vān, bhága·vat | |
Acc | -am | bháv·ant·am, bháv·at | ad·ánt·am, ad·át | júhv·at·am, júhv·at | paśu·mánt·am, -mát | bhága·vant·am, -vat | |
Ins | -ā | bháv·at·ā | ad·at·ā́ | júhv·at·ā | pasu·mát·ā | bhága·vat·ā | |
etc | etc | ||||||
Voc [lower-alpha 10] | -Ø | bháv·an, bháv·at | ád·an, ád·at | júhv·an, júhv·at | páśu·man, -mat | bhág·avan, -vat | |
Dual | |||||||
N.A.V | -au, -ī | bháv·ant·au, -ant·ī | ad·ánt·au, ad·at·ī́ | júhv·at·au, júhv·at·ī | paśu·mánt·au, -mát·ī | bhága·vant·au, -vat·ī | |
Plural | |||||||
N.V | -as, -i | bháv·ant·as, -ant·i | ad·ánt·as, ad·ánt·i | júhv·at·as, júhv·at·i | paśu·mánt·as, -mánti | bhága·vant·as, -vant·i | |
Acc | -as | bháv·at·as, -ant·i | ad·át·as, ad·ánt·i | júhv·at·as, júhv·at·i | paśu·mát·as, -mánt·i | bhága·vat·as, -vant·i | |
Ins | -bhis | bháv·ad·bhis | ad·ád·bhis | júhv·ad·bhis | paśu·mád·bhis | bhága·vad·bhis |
These forms exhibit similarities with the -vant stems illustrated above, with the main exception that in the weakest forms, before vowel endings, -vāṅs is zero-graded alongside the disappearance of the -ṅ-. [46] [47]
Case | Ending | vidvā́ṅs- [upper-alpha 40] m.n. | babhūváṅs- [upper-alpha 41] m.n. |
---|---|---|---|
Nom | -s | vid·vā́n, vid·vát | babhū·vā́n, babhū·vát |
Acc | -am | vid·vā́ṅs·am, -vát | babhū·vā́ṅs·am, -vát |
Ins | -ā | vid·úṣ·ā | babhū·vúṣ·ā |
etc | etc | ||
Voc [lower-alpha 10] | -Ø | víd·van, víd·vat | bábhū·van, bábhu·vat |
Dual | |||
N.A.V | -au, -ī | vid·vā́ṅs·au, vid·úṣ·ī | babhū·vāṅs·au, babhū·vúṣ·ī |
Plural | |||
N.V | -as, -i | vid·vāṅs·as, vid·vā́ṅs·i | babhū·vā́ṅs·as, babhū·vúṣ·i |
Acc | -as | vid·úṣ·as, -vā́ṅs·i | babhū·vúṣ·as, -vā́ṅs·i |
Ins | -bhis | vid·vád·bhis | babhū·vád·bhis |
A small closed class of comparatives and superlatives are directly formed on adjectival roots, after dropping the original stem suffix. The comparative takes the suffix -īyān (yāṃsas), yasī, yas, which declines as a consonant- and ī-stem adjective; the superlative takes -iṣṭhas, ā, am. The root is strengthened to the guṇa grade.
In some adjectives the original form of the root has been obscured by internal sandhi, making the outcome somewhat irregular. Thus:
The secondary suffixes of comparison are -taras, ā, am for comparative and -tamas, ā, am for superlative. They are appended to the inflectional base, with no modification of the stem. Usually, the pada stem is used for consonant-stem adjectives, but those in a simple -n sometimes retain it.
The numbers [48] [49] from one to ten, along with cognates in closely related languages, are:
Sanskrit | Latin | Proto-Indo-European |
---|---|---|
éka- | ūn- | *Hoi-no-, *Hoi-k(ʷ)o- |
dvá- | duo | *d(u)wo- |
trí- | trēs, tria | *trei-, *tri- |
catúr- | quattuor | *kʷetwor-, *kʷetur- |
páñca- | quīnque | *penkʷe |
ṣáṣ- | sex | *s(w)eḱs |
saptá-, sápta- | septem | *septm̥ |
aṣṭá-, áṣṭa- | octō | *oḱtō |
náva- | novem | *newn̥ |
dáśa- | decem | *deḱm̥(t) |
All numbers in Sanskrit can be declined in all the cases. From one to four, the cardinal numerals agree with the substantive they qualify in number, gender and case; from 5 to 19, in number and case, with only one form for all genders; from 20 onwards in case only. [50]
Éka is declined like a pronominal adjective, though the dual form does not occur. Dvá appears only in the dual. Trí and catúr are declined as below: [51]
Three | Four | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masculine | Neuter | Feminine | Masculine | Neuter | Feminine | |
Nominative | tráyas | trī́ṇi | tisrás | catvā́ras | catvā́ri | cátasras |
Accusative | trīn | trī́ṇi | tisrás | catúras | catvā́ri | cátasras |
Instrumental | tribhís | tisṛ́bhis | catúrbhis | catasṛ́bhis | ||
Dative | tribhyás | tisṛ́bhyas | catúrbhyas | catasṛ́bhyas | ||
Ablative | tribhyás | tisṛ́bhyas | catúrbhyas | catasṛ́bhyas | ||
Genitive | trayāṇā́m | tisṛṇā́m | caturṇā́m | catasṛṇā́m | ||
Locative | triṣú | tisṛ́ṣu | catúrṣu | catasṛ́ṣu |
The numbers from 11 to 19 are:
ékādaśam, dvā́daśam, tráyodaśam, cáturdaśam, páñcadaśam, ṣóḍaśam, saptádaśam, aṣṭā́daśam, návadaśam.
The tens from 20 to 90 are:
(d)viṃśatí, triṃśát, catvāriṃśát, pañcāśát, ṣaṣṭí, saptatí, aśītí, navatí.
The joint numbers:
21 – ékaviṃśati, 22 – dvā́viṃśati, 23 – trayóviṃśati, ..., 26 – ṣáḍviṃśati, ..., but 82 – dvā́śīti, 83 – trayā́śīti, 88 – aṣṭā́śīti.
The hundreds are:
śatam, dvai śatai, trīṇi śatāni / tri śatam, etc.
The larger numbers:
1000 | sahásra |
10,000 | ayúta |
100,000 | lakṣá |
1,000,000 | prayúta |
10,000,000 | kóṭi |
108 | arbudá |
109 | mahā́rbuda |
1010 | kharvá |
1011 | nikharvá [52] [lower-alpha 25] |
10140 | asaṅkhyeya! |
All the numerals may be compounded attributively in their stem form: [53]
Compound | Meaning |
---|---|
dvi-pāda- | two-footed |
śata-mukha- | hundred-mouthed |
daśa-kumāra-carita- | ten-youth-tale, i.e., the story of the ten princes |
The ordinal numbers from one to ten are:
Other numbers:
11. – ekādaśás, ... 20. – viṃśatitamás (viṃśás), 30. – triṃśattamás (triṃśás), 40. – catvāriṃśattamás, 50. – pañcāśattamás, 60. – ṣaṣtitamás, 70. – saptatitamás, 80. – aśītitamás, 90. – navatitamás, 100. – śatatamás, 1000. – sahasratamás.
Sanskrit pronouns and determiners behave in their declension largely like other declinable classes such as nouns, adjectives and numerals, so that they can all be classed together under nominals. However, pronouns and determiners display certain peculiarities of their own compared to the other nominal classes. [54] [55]
Furthermore, personal pronouns have an additional dimension not present in the other nominals, but shared by verbs: person. [56]
Pronouns [lower-greek 19] are declined for case [lower-greek 20] , number [lower-greek 21] , and gender [lower-greek 22] . The pronominal declension applies to a few adjectives as well. Many pronouns have alternative enclitic forms.
The official list of Sanskrit pronouns is: sarva, viśva, ubha, ubhaya, utara, utama, anya, anyatara, tvat, tva, nema, sama, sima, pūrva, para, avara, dakṣiṇa, uttara, apara, adhara, sva, antara; tyad, tad, yad, etad, idam, adam; eka, dvi, yuṣmad, asmad, and kim. [57]
Sanskrit pronouns in the first [lower-greek 23] and second [lower-greek 24] person are theoretically termed asmad and yuṣmad respectively.
They resemble one another in how they are declined, and similarly do not mark gender. These pronouns have shortened, enclitic forms in the accusative, dative, and genitive cases (parenthesized in the table below). [58] [59]
Case | asmad | yuṣmad |
---|---|---|
N. | ahám | tvám |
A. | mā́m (mā) | tvā́m (tvā) |
I. | máyā | tváyā |
D. | máhyam (me) | túbhyam (te) |
Ab. | mát | tvát |
G. | máma (me) | táva (te) |
L. | máy·i | tváy·i |
Case | asmad | yuṣmad |
N.A.V | āvā́m | yuvā́m |
I.D.Ab. | āvā́·bhyām | yuvā́·bhyām |
G.L. | āváy·os | yuváy·os |
& A.D.G. | (nau) | (vām) |
Case | asmad | yuṣmad |
N. | vayám | yūyám |
A. | asmā́n (nas) | yuṣmā́n (vas) |
I. | asmā́·bhis | yuṣmā́·bhis |
D. | asmá·bhyam (nas) | yuṣmá·bhyam (vas) |
Ab. | asmát | yuṣmát |
G. | asmā́kam (nas) | yuṣmā́kam (vas) |
L. | asmā́·su | yuṣmā́·su |
The forms mad, asmad, tvad and yuṣmad can be used in derivation and composition: mát·kṛta, mát·sakhi, tvát·pitṛ, etc. [60]
Sanskrit does not have true third person pronouns, but its demonstratives play this role when they stand independently of a substantive. The four different demonstratives in Sanskrit [lower-alpha 26] are:
Both tad and adas are used for objects of reference that are far away, the latter being more emphatic. Both are translated by the English distal demonstrative that.
By contrast, idam and etad are used for nearby objects, and, again, the latter is more emphatic and has a strong deictic meaning. These two pronouns are translated by the English proximal demonstrative this. [61]
The masculine singular nominative form of tad, sas exhibits irregular sandhi behaviour — before consonants saḥ becomes sa, giving, for instance, sa gajaḥ [upper-alpha 46] rather than the expected *so gajaḥ. [62] [lower-alpha 27]
etad, is declined almost identically to tad. Its paradigm is obtained by prefixing e- to all the forms of tat. Consequently [lower-alpha 28] the masculine and feminine nominative singular forms of this pronoun are eṣas and eṣā. [65]
The declension of idam is somewhat irregular because it is formed from two different stems, i- and a-. [lower-alpha 29] The nominative and accusative forms, except the three singular nominatives, are regularly formed with the stem im-, and the remaining forms from a-; an extra -n- is infixed should the ending start with a vowel.
Most of the forms for adas are regularly formed using the stem u- the same way as if it were a-, with the combination *ui- becoming ī- in the plural. The nominative dual and instrumental singular are formed like u-stem nouns. [67] [68] [69]
Case | tad m.n. | idam m.n | adas m.n | tad f | idam f | adas f | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N. | sás, tát | ayám, idám | asaú, adás | sā | iyám | asaú | |
A. | tám, tát | imám, idám | amúm, adás | tā́m | imā́m | amū́m | |
I. | téna | anéna | amúnā | táyā | anáyā | amúyā | |
D. | tásmai | asmaí | amúṣmai | tásyai | asyaí | amúṣyai | |
Ab. | tásmāt | asmā́t | amúṣmāt | tásyās | asyā́s | amúṣyās | |
G. | tásya | asyá | amúṣya | tásyās | asyā́s | amúṣyās | |
L. | tásmin | asmín | amúṣmin | tásyām | asyā́m | amúṣyām | |
Case | tad | idam | adas | tad | idam | adas | |
N.A.V | taú, té | imaú, imé | amū́ | té | imé | amū́ | |
I.D.Ab. | tā́bhyām | ābhyā́m | amū́bhyām | tā́bhyām | ā́bhyām | amū́bhyām | |
G.L. | táyos | anáyos | amúyos | táyos | anáyos | amúyos | |
Case | tad | idam | adas | tad | idam | adas | |
N. | te, tā́ni | imé, imā́ni | amī́, amū́ni | tās | imā́s | amū́s | |
A. | tā́n, tā́ni | imā́n, imā́ni | amū́n, amū́ni | tā́s | imā́s | amū́s | |
I. | taís | ebhís | amī́bhis | tā́bhis | ābhís | amū́bhis | |
D. Ab. | tébhyas | ebhyás | amī́bhyas | tā́bhyas | ābhyás | amū́bhyas | |
G. | téṣām | eṣā́m | amī́ṣām | tā́sām | āsā́m | amū́ṣām | |
L. | téṣu | eṣú | amī́ṣu | tā́su | āsú | amū́ṣu |
asmad allows the following forms of possessive pronouns:
The feminines are in -ā.
yuṣmad has these:
tad and etad have tadīya- and etadīya- respectively.
The feminines are again in -ā, except the -aka forms where it is -akī. These are all conjugated like regular a-, ā and ī-stem forms. [70] [71]
Technically a noun, bhavant [lower-alpha 30] literally means 'Your Honour' and is treated like a third-person subject. It carries, however, a second person meaning and connotes politeness. This is declined very much like any vant-stem adjective.
This use of bhavant is common enough to suggest that the word should be treated as a polite variant of the second person pronoun, rather than as a more elaborate honorific construction. Bhavant declines like all stems ending in -ant.
In talking of someone not present, one may use tatrabhavant, and conversely for someone present, atrabhavant, whether being addressed or not. [72]
The enclitic pronoun enam is found only in a few oblique cases and numbers. It is unemphatic and mostly refers to persons. [73]
Singular | Dual | Plural | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masc. | Neu. | Fem. | Masc. | Neu. | Fem. | Masc. | Neu. | Fem. | |
Accusative | enam | enat | enām | enau | ene | enān | enāni | enāḥ | |
Instrumental | enena | ||||||||
Genitive/locative | enayos |
In Sanskrit, interrogative and relative pronouns are formed analogously to tat. The interrogative pronoun kim is declined like tat, replacing the initial t or s with k. The only exception to this rule is the neuter nominative/accusative singular form, which is kim rather than the expected *kat. The relative pronoun yat is declined like tat, without exception replacing the initial t or s with y. [74]
The demonstrative tat functions as a correlative pronoun when used in "independent clauses that 'complete' relative clauses to form complex sentences"—unlike in English (where one can say, for example, "The girl with whom you were speaking is my sister"), relative pronouns must be accompanied by correlative pronouns (which, if applied to the previous example, would be: "The girl with whom you are speaking, she is my sister"). [75]
For a Sanskrit example of a complex sentence using corresponding relative and correlative pronouns, consider: yasmin vane vasati rāmas tasmin vane na vidyante rākṣasāḥ ('In the forest where Rāma lives, there are no demons'). In that example, the pronouns are alike in gender, number, and case, but matching relative–correlative pronouns need not be alike in case—for example: yena puruṣeṇa saha bhāṣate nṛpaḥ sa muniḥ ('The man with whom the king is speaking is a sage'). [76]
Aside from their primary uses, the interrogative and relative pronouns are also used to form indefinite phrases. The two ways of forming indefinite phrases are:
As is evident in the examples, the first method of indicating indefiniteness is stronger, while the latter is more subtle and can simply be translated by an indefinite article in English. [77]
The absolute negative, semantically functioning as the negation of existential quantification, is formed by negating an indefinite phrase. [78]
There are a number of words in Sanskrit that function as reflexive pronouns. The indeclinable svayam can indicate reflexivity pertaining to subjects of any person or number, and—since subjects in Sanskrit can appear in the nominative, instrumental, or genitive cases—it can have the sense of any of these cases. The noun ātman ('self') and adjective svaḥ ('own'; cf. Latin suus) decline so as to express reflexivity in any case, person, and number. The former is always in the masculine, even when used in relation to a female subject, but the latter declines for gender. [79]
Several adjectives in Sanskrit are declined pronominally. That is, their declension differs from ordinary adjectival declension of a-stems and instead follows the declension of tat in certain respects.
Note that when any of these adjectives are at the end of a compound, they decline exactly like ordinary a-stem adjectives. [80]
Derivation or word-formation in Sanskrit can be divided into the following types: [81] [82]
The root usually undergoes some change of form first, typically to first-grade, or in some cases second-grade, strengthening. A final -n or -m may sometimes be lost, a short vowel may be first followed by a -t, a final palatal or h may revert to the corresponding guttural, and so on. [83] [84]
A very large number of derivatives are formed under this category, with several semantic outcomes and with varying treatment of the root, including gradation, reduplication and no change. [85]
Another large class, mostly feminine action nouns, with some masculine agent nouns and adjectives. The root remains in zero-grade form, largely like past passive participles in -tá. [86]
This is another productive category (PIE *-men), mostly of action-noun formations. [87]
tṛ- or tar-suffix derivatives, mostly agent nouns (PIE *-tor, English -er). [88]
Several basic kinship nouns are classed under here.
Typically nouns expressing the means of doing something. [89]
This is used primarily to form words of adjectival meaning, and with the first vowel usually undergoing vṛddhi-grade strengthening. [90]
A very productive class, nouns or adjectives that denote a relationship. Patronymics are also derived in this manner. [91]
Another very productive class. Closely related are -iya- and -īya- formations. [92]
-iya- is used after a consonant cluster: [93]
These suffixes denote the quality of being, analogous to '-ness' and '-hood' in English. Cf Lat -tas (-ty), Slavic *-ьstvo. Coupled with the prefix a- 'un-', the sense of '-lessness' is derived. [94]
In linguistics, declension is the changing of the form of a word, generally to express its syntactic function in the sentence, by way of some inflection. Declensions may apply to nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and determiners to indicate number, case, gender, and a number of other grammatical categories. Meanwhile, the inflectional change of verbs is called conjugation.
Latin declension is the set of patterns according to which Latin words are declined—that is, have their endings altered to show grammatical case, number and gender. Nouns, pronouns, and adjectives are declined, and a given pattern is called a declension. There are five declensions, which are numbered and grouped by ending and grammatical gender. Each noun follows one of the five declensions, but some irregular nouns have exceptions.
In grammar, the vocative case is a grammatical case which is used for a noun that identifies a person being addressed or occasionally for the noun modifiers of that noun. A vocative expression is an expression of direct address by which the identity of the party spoken to is set forth expressly within a sentence. For example, in the sentence "I don't know, John," John is a vocative expression that indicates the party being addressed, as opposed to the sentence "I don't know John", in which "John" is the direct object of the verb "know".
Latin is a heavily inflected language with largely free word order. Nouns are inflected for number and case; pronouns and adjectives are inflected for number, case, and gender; and verbs are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood. The inflections are often changes in the ending of a word, but can be more complicated, especially with verbs.
In Indo-European studies, a thematic vowel or theme vowel is the vowel *e or *o from ablaut placed before the ending of a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) word. Nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the Indo-European languages with this vowel are thematic, and those without it are athematic. Used more generally, a thematic vowel is any vowel found at the end of the stem of a word.
This page describes the declension of nouns, adjectives and pronouns in Slovene. For information on Slovene grammar in general, see Slovene grammar.
The grammar of Old English differs greatly from Modern English, predominantly being much more inflected. As a Germanic language, Old English has a morphological system similar to that of the Proto-Germanic reconstruction, retaining many of the inflections thought to have been common in Proto-Indo-European and also including constructions characteristic of the Germanic daughter languages such as the umlaut.
German declension is the paradigm that German uses to define all the ways articles, adjectives and sometimes nouns can change their form to reflect their role in the sentence: subject, object, etc. Declension allows speakers to mark a difference between subjects, direct objects, indirect objects and possessives by changing the form of the word—and/or its associated article—instead of indicating this meaning through word order or prepositions. As a result, German can take a much more fluid approach to word order without the meaning being obscured. In English, a simple sentence must be written in strict word order. This sentence cannot be expressed in any other word order than how it is written here without changing the meaning. A translation of the same sentence from German to English would appear rather different and can be expressed with a variety of word order with little or no change in meaning.
The grammar of the Sanskrit language has a complex verbal system, rich nominal declension, and extensive use of compound nouns. It was studied and codified by Sanskrit grammarians from the later Vedic period, culminating in the Pāṇinian grammar of the 4th century BCE.
Sanskrit has inherited from its parent, the Proto-Indo-European language, an elaborate system of verbal morphology, much of which has been preserved in Sanskrit as a whole, unlike in other kindred languages, such as Ancient Greek or Latin. Sanskrit verbs thus have an inflection system for different combinations of tense, aspect, mood, voice, number, and person. Non-finite forms such as participles are also extensively used.
Vedic Sanskrit is the name given by modern scholarship to the oldest attested descendant of the Proto-Indo-Aryan language. This is the language that was used in the religious hymns known as the four Vedas, in particular, the Rigveda, the oldest of them, dated to have been composed roughly over the period from 1500 to 1000 BCE. Before its standardization as Sanskrit, the Vedic language was a purely spoken language during that period used before the introduction of writing in the language.
Gothic is an inflected language, and as such its nouns, pronouns, and adjectives must be declined in order to serve a grammatical function. A set of declined forms of the same word pattern is called a declension. There are five grammatical cases in Gothic with a few traces of an old sixth instrumental case.
Old Norse has three categories of verbs and two categories of nouns. Conjugation and declension are carried out by a mix of inflection and two nonconcatenative morphological processes: umlaut, a backness-based alteration to the root vowel; and ablaut, a replacement of the root vowel, in verbs.
Old High German is an inflected language, and as such its nouns, pronouns, and adjectives must be declined in order to serve a grammatical function. A set of declined forms of the same word pattern is called a declension. There are five grammatical cases in Old High German.
Historical linguistics has made tentative postulations about and multiple varyingly different reconstructions of Proto-Germanic grammar, as inherited from Proto-Indo-European grammar. All reconstructed forms are marked with an asterisk (*).
Telugu is an agglutinative language with person, tense, case and number being inflected on the end of nouns and verbs. Its word order is usually subject-object-verb, with the direct object following the indirect object. The grammatical function of the words are marked by suffixes that indicate case and postpositions that follow the oblique stem. It is also head-final and a pro-drop language.
The morphology of the Polish language is characterised by a fairly regular system of inflection as well as word formation. Certain regular or common alternations apply across the Polish morphological system, affecting word formation and inflection of various parts of speech. These are described below, mostly with reference to the orthographic rather than the phonological system for clarity.
This article concerns the morphology of the Albanian language, including the declension of nouns and adjectives, and the conjugation of verbs. It refers to the Tosk-based Albanian standard regulated by the Academy of Sciences of Albania.
The grammar of Old Saxon is highly inflected, similar to that of Old English or Latin. As an ancient Germanic language, the morphological system of Old Saxon is similar to that of the hypothetical Proto-Germanic reconstruction, retaining many of the inflections thought to have been common in Proto-Indo-European and also including characteristically Germanic constructions such as the umlaut. Among living languages, Old Saxon morphology most closely resembles that of modern High German.
This article describes the grammar of the Old Irish language. The grammar of the language has been described with exhaustive detail by various authors, including Thurneysen, Binchy and Bergin, McCone, O'Connell, Stifter, among many others.