The war between the warlike communities of Souliotes in Epirus and the local Ottoman ruler, Ali Pasha, in 1803, was the last of a series of conflicts, known as the Souliote Wars, that led, finally, to the capitulation and expulsion of the Souliotes.
During the 500-year reign of the Ottoman Empire, the fierce Souliotes enjoyed an autonomous status, known as the Souliote Confederacy. The Confederacy was established during the 16th century, in the mountains of Thesprotia, near the towns of Paramythia and Parga. The Souliotes established an autonomous confederacy dominating the villages in the remote mountainous areas of Epirus, where they successfully resisted Ottoman rule. At the height of its power, in the second half of the 18th century, the Souliote Confederacy is estimated to have comprised up to 12,000 inhabitants scattered across approximately 60 villages.[1]
Conflict
In 1803, the Sultan asked Ali Pasha to press immediately a planned siege of the Souliotes, after being transmitted information that the Souliotes had procured considerable supplies of munitions from French ships. The Souliotes obtained all of their supplies from Parga, and also acquired support from Europe. Russia and France provided weapons and ammunition to them. For the European powers, the Souliotes were seen as an instrument to weaken the Ottoman Empire. When the British politicians turned to the Ottoman Empire in order to strengthen their forces against Napoleon, the weapons and ammunition supplies were interrupted. Without support from outside and wearied by years of siege, the unity of the Souliot clans began to fray.
The Botsaris family left Souli for political reasons and parleyed with Ali Pasha. The Souliotes remaining in Souli gathered in Saint George's Eastern Orthodox Church and agreed to fight to the death. Among them were no more than 2,000 armed men. The main leaders were Fotos Tzavellas, Dimos Drakos, Tousias Zervas, Koutzonikas, Gogkas Danglis, Yiannakis Sehos, Fotomaras, Tzavaras, Veikos, Panou, Zigouris Diamadis, and Giorgos Bousbos. Amazingly, these Souliotes won all the ensuing decisive battles and forced Ali Pasha to build castles in neighboring villages so as to prepare himself for a long siege.[citation needed]
On 3 September 1803, the troops of Ali Pasha, led by his son Veli Pasha, gained possessions of the village of Kakosuli, after the treachery of a Souliote named Pylios Gousis. Gousis admitted 200 soldiers into his house after being paid for that by Veli Pasha, the second son of Ali. Gousis himself said that it was not the money but his wish to save his son, who was being held captive by Ali Pasha. The Souliotes withdrew to the fortresses of Kiafa and Kughi, where they fought their last battle on 7 December 1803.
The military chief of the Souliotes was the priest Samuel, who was in charge of the magazines on Kungi, leading 300 families in the battle. One of the two hills in the region, called Bira (Kiafa) was abandoned by the clan of Zervas, leaving the other hill, Kughi, as the only stronghold of the Souliotes. Ali Pasha`s aim was not only to expel the Souliotes, but also to capture their leaders and hold them hostage. Therefore, he ordered his son Veli to come to an agreement, a treaty, with Foto Tzavela, the father of Kitsos Tzavelas, later Prime Minister of Greece. On 12 December 1803, Veli Pasha and Foto Tzavela signed a capitulation treaty which included a provision that the main pharas of the Souliotes, including those of Drakos and Zervas, to relocate to Parga.
In an act of treachery that had become familiar to the Souliotes, Ali Pasha planned to seize them as hostages on the road to Parga. Ali's soldiers were ordered to set up an ambush on the road. However, Ali's own troops were moved to countermand his orders. Some Muslimbeys of Paramythia and Amartoli, members of Veli's army, hearing of this plan, informed the Souliotes, who changed their itinerary at the last minute and managed to survive. The Zervas clan subsequently made its way to Messinia in the Peloponnese peninsula of Greece, where they established the village they named Romiri and the Turks, ironically, named Veli. There, the priest Lambros Zervas, known as Papa Lambros, continued to gather arms for the Greek Revolution, sending guns to his brother, Diamantis Zervas, a leader in the Greek Revolutionary Army.
Meanwhile, the priest Samuel refused to trust the capitulation treaty with Ali, so on the hill of Kungi, he withdrew to the magazine filled with munitions and declared that no infidel would employ these, which were entrusted to his care, against Christians. He then lit the magazine, causing an enormous explosion and dying a martyr.[2]
Aftermath
Zalongo incident
The Souliotes who signed an agreement with Ali Pasha that ensured their continued life in Souli suffered the worst fate. They withdrew to the mountain of Zalongo, under the promise of protection by the pasha; however, as soon as Ali gained Kiafa, he ordered his troops to seize and murder them. About 150 men and women were seized and enslaved by Ali and 25 were killed. During this battle, 22 women and six men decided to die rather than to fall into the hands of Ali.
Over 50 women, holding their children in their arms, danced on the cliff at Zalongo. One by one, reaching the leading side of the circle dance, they threw themselves over the cliff. The bodies of four children were reported to be found below, perhaps having been saved by the corpses of those who fell before—but saved for the inevitable suffering at the hands of the Ottomans. The story of the mass suicide at Zalongo soon became known in the whole region and throughout Europe.
In another part of Epirus, a group of no more than 200 Souliotes managed to defend themselves. After numerous battles, a few families managed to retreat to Parga. This “disgrace” could not be tolerated by Ali. He ordered his troops to kill every Souliote family that lived dispersed in his pashalik, and he sent the seventy Souliote families who had surrendered to him to inhabit the most desolate spots in his pashalik.
The eviction and the catastrophe made Souliotes flee to Corfu. In 1820, they reached an agreement with Ali Pasha, and turned back to their homeland, fighting this time side by side with Ali against the Ottoman Empire. Nevertheless, in no more than a year, Souliotes became part of the Greek War of Independence, thus leaving their land forever.[2][3]
According to the legend, the women of Zalongo, holding their children in their arms, went to the cliff at Zalongo and, while singing and dancing the syrtos, jumped over the precipice one after another.[4] The incident soon became known in Europe. At the Salon of 1827, a French artist named Ary Scheffer exhibited two Romantic paintings, one of which was entitled Les Femmes souliotes ("The Souliot Women").[5] Today, a monument on the site of Mount Zalongo above village Kamarina (in which the Drakos family is still represented) and above Kassope commemorates their sacrifice.[6] There is also a popular dance-song about the event, which is known and still is danced in Greece today.[7]
Ali Pasha or Ali Pasha of Tepelena, commonly known as Ali Pasha of Ioannina, was an Albanian ruler who served as Ottoman pasha of the Pashalik of Yanina, a large part of western Rumelia, which under his rule acquired a high degree of autonomy and even managed to stay de facto independent. The capital of the Pashalik was Ioannina, which along with Tepelena were Ali's headquarters. Conceiving his territory in increasingly independent terms, Ali Pasha's correspondence and foreign Western correspondence frequently refer to the territories under Ali's control as "Albania", which by Ali's definition included central and southern Albania, and parts of mainland Greece; in particular, most of the district of Epirus and the western parts of Thessaly and Macedonia. He managed to stretch his control over the sanjaks of Yanina, Delvina, Vlora and Berat, Elbasan, Ohrid and Monastir, Görice, and Tirhala. Ali was granted the Sanjak of Tirhala in 1787, and he delegated in 1788 its government to his second born Veli Pasha, who also became Pasha of the Morea Eyalet in 1807. Ali's eldest son Muhtar Pasha was granted the Sanjak of Karli-Eli and the Sanjak of Eğriboz in 1792, stretching for the first time Ali's control down to Livadia and the Gulf of Corinth, except Attica. Muhtar Pasha also became governor of the Sanjak of Ohrid in 1796–7 and of the Sanjak of Vlora and Berat in 1810.
Parga is a town and municipality located in the northwestern part of the regional unit of Preveza in Epirus, northwestern Greece. The seat of the municipality is the village Kanallaki. Parga lies on the Ionian coast between the cities of Preveza and Igoumenitsa. It is a resort town known for its natural environment.
Souli is a municipality in Epirus, northwestern Greece. The seat of the municipality is the town of Paramythia.
Markos Botsaris was a Souliot chieftain, general of the Greek revolutionary army and hero of the Greek War of Independence. He played a key role in relieving the First Siege of Missolonghi in 1822–1823 and was awarded the title of General of Western Greece by the revolutionary Greek government. He was killed during the Battle of Karpenisi and was buried in Missolonghi with full honors. Today Botsaris is among the most revered national heroes in Greece.
Dance of Zalongo Greek: Χορός του Ζαλόγγου, Horos tou Zalongou) refers to the mass suicide of women and their children from Souli that occurred in the aftermath of the invasion of Ottoman troops on December 16, 1803. The event is commemorated in Greece in the context of the Greek War of Independence. About 60 women were trapped near the village of Zalongo in Epirus, now modern Greece, then the Ottoman Empire, who decided to turn towards the cliff's edge and die with their infants and children rather than to submit to the Ottoman troops chasing them. According to tradition they did this one after the other while dancing and singing. The name also refers a number of Greek theatrical dramas and a song in folk style, commemorating the event, named the Dance of Zalongo.
Lakka Souliou is a former municipality in the Ioannina regional unit, Epirus, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Dodoni, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 158.578 km2. Its population was 1,897 according to the census of 2021. Lakka Souliou is a historical site in the wider area of Souli.
Kitsos Tzavelas was a Souliot fighter and Hellenic Army General in the Greek War of Independence. After the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece he entered Greek politics and served as minister of Military Affairs (1847-1848) and as Prime Minister (1847).
Kitsos Botsaris ; 1741 in Missolonghi – 1813, in Arta), was a leader of the Souliotes, an autonomous community in Ottoman-ruled Epirus. He played a leading role in the aftermath of the last war between the Souliotes and the Ottoman ruler of Ioannina, Ali Pasha. He was the father of Kostas Botsaris and Markos Botsaris, who fought in the Greek War of Independence.
The Pashalik of Yanina, sometimes referred to as the Pashalik of Ioannina or Pashalik of Janina, was an autonomous pashalik within the Ottoman Empire between 1787 and 1822 covering large areas of Albania, Greece, and North Macedonia. Under the Ottoman Albanian ruler Ali Pasha, the pashalik acquired a high degree of autonomy and even managed to stay de facto independent, though this was never officially recognized by the Ottoman Empire. Conceiving his territory in increasingly independent terms, Ali Pasha's correspondence and foreign Western correspondence frequently refer to the territories under Ali's control as Albania.
The 1854 revolt in Epirus was one of the most important of a series of Greek uprisings that occurred in Epirus during that period. When the Crimean War (1854–1856) broke out, many Epirotes, with tacit support from the Greek state, revolted against the Ottoman rule. Although this movement was supported by distinguished military personalities, the correlation of forces doomed it from the start, leading to its suppression after a few months.
Nikolaos Zervas was a Greek revolutionary and Souliote captain in the Greek War of Independence. After the establishment of Greek independence he reached the rank of general in the Hellenic Army.
The Albanian Regiment was a military unit of the First French Empire formed in 1807 in Corfu. Consisting mainly of Albanians, but also Greeks, Italians and Dalmatians, it was commanded by Colonel Jean-Louis Toussaint Minot and served mainly as defense unit in the French-ruled Ionian Islands. It was disbanded in 1814.
The Souliotes were an Orthodox Christian Albanian tribal community in the area of Souli in Epirus from the 16th century to the beginning of the 19th century, who via their participation in the Greek War of Independence came to identify with the Greek nation.
Christoforos Perraivos was a Greek officer of the Greek War of Independence, member of the Filiki Eteria and author. In non-Greek sources his name is usually found as Per(r)evo(s).
Lambros Tzavelas was a leader of the Souliotes. Lambros Tzavelas was famous for his role in the Souliot struggles against Ali Pasha, the Pasha of Yanina. Tzavelas was born in Souli.
Veli Pasha was an Ottoman Albanian ruler and the second born of Ali Pasha of Ioannina of the increasingly independent Pashalik of Yanina. As an Ottoman commander, he is known for his participation in military actions against the Souliotes, the Septinsular Republic, and the Serbian rebels. He was appointed governor of the Sanjak of Tirhala in 1787, and became Pasha of the Morea Eyalet in 1807.
The Greek Legion, officially the Light Jäger Foot Legion, was a Jäger infantry unit in the service of the Russian-controlled Septinsular Republic. It consisted of soldiers of Greek and Albanian origin and was led by Major-General Emmanouil Papadopoulos. It was active between 1805 and 1807, taking part in the War of the Third Coalition and the Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812).
The Souliote War was an armed conflict between Ali Pasha of Ioannina and a coalition of Souliotes and their Muslim allies. The war lasted between February 1789 and April 1793 and was fought in the context of the Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792) and local power struggles. The Souliotes achieved a defensive victory but their actions did not foment a Christian insurrection as the Russians had hoped.
Lambros Koutsonikas was a Greek general and fighter of the Greek Revolution of 1821, army officer and amateur historian of the Revolution.
Notis Botsaris was a Souliote fighter and general in the Greek Revolution of 1821. He was the son of the late Giorgis Botsaris and was the leader of the Souliote fara of the Botsari.
References
↑ Biris, K. Αρβανίτες, οι Δωριείς του νεότερου Ελληνισμού: H ιστορία των Ελλήνων Αρβανιτών. ["Arvanites, the Dorians of modern Greece: History of the Greek Arvanites"]. Athens, 1960 (3rd ed. 1998: ISBN960-204-031-9).
↑ Royal Society of Canada (1943), p. 100; JSTOR (Organization) (1954), p. 39; Papaspyrou-Karadēmētriou, Lada-Minōtou, and Ethniko Historiko Mouseio (1994), p. 47; Pritchett (1996), p. 103.
↑ JSTOR (1954), p. 39; Mynatt and Kaiman (1968), p. 28.
JSTOR (Organization) (1954). Journal of the International Folk Music Council, Volumes 6-10. Published with the assistance of the International Music Council, under the auspices of United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation for the International Folk Music Council by W. Heffer, 1954.
Papaspyrou-Karadēmētriou, Euthymia; Lada-Minōtou, Maria; Ethniko Historiko Mouseio (Greece) (1994). The National Historical Museum. Historical and Ethnological Society of Greece. ISBN960-85573-0-5.
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