The South African state under apartheid was the state of South Africa from 1948 to 1994, during which the country was governed by a system of institutionalized racial segregation and white minority rule known as Apartheid. Located at the southern tip of the African continent, it bordered Namibia (then South West Africa), Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Lesotho, and Eswatini. Throughout this period, the state operated as a parliamentary democracy restricted to the white population, and underwent three major constitutional phases—transitioning from a constitutional monarch to a parliamentary republic, and finally a presidential republic. Apartheid South Africa was internationally isolated and widely condemned, with the system ultimately dismantled following the country's first multiracial democratic elections in 1994.
The apartheid system was formally established following the 1948 general election,[2] in which the National Party came to power on a platform of enforcing strict racial segregation and Afrikaner nationalism. Although racial discrimination and segregation has existed long before this period, apartheid marked the introduction of a comprehensive legal framework that systematically classified the population by race and assigned unequal rights and living conditions to each group. The ideology behind apartheid was rooted in the belief of white supremacy and the preservation of Afrikaner culture and political control. A series of laws, such as the Population Registration Act,[3]Group Areas Act[4] and Pass Laws[5] formalized the division of South African society and disenfranchised the Black majority and other non-white groups. These laws regulated nearly every aspect of life, including where people could live, work, and receive education.[6] The state engineered a spatial and economic order in which white South Africans retained control over land, wealth, and political power, while non-white communities were relegated to underdeveloped and often remote areas. The system also extended to the labor market, where job reservation policies[7] ensured that skilled and high-paying employment remained largely inaccessible to non-white South Africans.
To enforce its policies, the apartheid state established a highly centralized and authoritarian government that used legislation, policing, and surveillance to maintain control. Black South Africans were gradually stripped of citizenship rights and political representation, calumniating in the creation of Bantustans or "homelands", which were presented by the state as independent nations but were internationally unrecognized and economically dependent. Within white-controlled South Africa, the state was characterized by a dominant-party system maintaining control through rigged constituency boundaries, censorship, and security legislation. In 1984, a new constitution[8] introduced a tricameral parliament that offered limited representation to Colored and Indian South Africans while continuing to exclude the Black majority entirely.
Resistance to apartheid emerged both within South Africa and abroad. Domestically, organizations such as the ANC, the Pan Africanist Congress and the South African Communist Party led campaigns of protest, civil disobedience, and later, armed struggle against apartheid. The 1960 Sharpeville Massacre,[9] in which police killed 69 unarmed protesters, marked a turning point, leading to the banning of opposition movements and the rise of underground resistance. In the 1970s and 80s, widespread unrest—including the Soweto Uprising of 1975—galvanized youth activism and renewed international attention. Meanwhile, global condemnation intensified, with economic sanctions,[10] cultural boycotts, and diplomatic isolation placing increasing pressure on the South African government.
By the late 1980s, the apartheid state faced mounting internal dissent, economic stagnation, and increasing international isolation. Reform efforts by State President P. W. Botha, including limited constitutional changes and the controversial tricameral parliament, failed to appease opposition or end unrest. On 2 February 1990, in his opening speech to parliament, F. W. de Klerk, Botha's successor, initiated a dramatic shift by legalizing banned political organizations, releasing Nelson Mandela after 27 years in prison,[11] and beginning negotiations to end apartheid. These efforts culminated in the formal dismantling of apartheid legislation and the country's first fully democratic election in 1994,[12] which resulted in a landslide victory for the ANC and the inauguration of Nelson Mandela as South Africa's first black president.
The legacy of the apartheid states continued to shape South Africa's social, economic, and political landscape.[13] Decades of institutionalized inequality left deep disparities in wealth, education, land ownership, and access to services, particularly along racial lines. While the post-apartheid government implemented programs aimed at redress and reconciliation—such as the Truth and Reconciliation Commission and Black Economic Empowerment—the effects of apartheid remain visible in persistent poverty, unemployment, and residential segregation. Internationally, apartheid South Africa remains a key example of state-enforced racial oppression, and its fall is widely regarded as a triumph of democratic activism, global solidarity, and negotiated transition. The period is studied both a cautionary tale and a case of political transformation through resistance and reform.
History
1948 general election
As the United Party's five-year mandate was concluding, South Africa was due for a general election by May. The county was still reeling from the socio-economic effects of the Second World War. During the war years, South Africa experienced an economic boom driven by the demands of the Allied war effort. However, wartime industrialization had resulted in large numbers of Black migrant workers migrating to major cities throughout the country, overwhelming the cities' infrastructure with a lack of housing and services to compensate for the migration. The state relaxed influx controls during the war to meet labor demands, and in some cases, government policy allowed for the training and upskilling Black workers. The rapid growth of the urban Black population, combined with economic instability and unrest, led to growing anxiety among white South Africans, who feared political and economic competition with the non-white population.
Smuts' postwar rhetoric and policies reflected a pragmatic—though cautious—openness to social reform. He supported South Africa's participation in the newly formed United Nations and spoke out against the extremism of Nazi ideology. Internationally, he positioned himself as a proponent of human rights and democratic governance. Domestically, however, his administration maintained the colour bar, pass laws, and the continued mandate of South West Africa. In 1946, his government launched the Fagan Commission to investigate continued segregation. The report from the commission, arguably one of the most liberal at the time, recommended continued relaxation of influx controls to allow for the permanent migration of Blacks to urban centres, including, at some unspecified point in the future, gradual integration that would allow for the black majority to lead the country. The commissions report, including Smuts perceived racial boundaries willingness to make concessions on racial issues—particularly his support for some degree of Black urban presence and limited union rights—was seized upon by the opposition as evidence of liberal decay.
The Herenigde Nasionale Party (or simply the National Party), in stark contrast, framed the postwar developments as a crisis of white civilization. Many whites—especially Afrikaners—remained disillusioned with overcrowding and crime rates in the cities, and they became concerned that increasing rates of migration would result in increased competition with blacks and a breakdown of the social order. The NP accused Smuts of betraying the country by allowing "racial mixing" and the spread of communism and western liberalism. To counter the UP government's Fagan Commission, the NP created the Sauer Commission. The commission advocated for the complete and total separation of the races through a series of legislation. The goal of the commission was to fully separate the country into areas designated for whites, known as White South Africa, and to reserve areas—typically impoverished and undeveloped—for blacks. The party's 1948 platform promised to reverse the trends of integration through a strict program of apartheid—meaning "apartness"—which they defined as a scientific and moral policy of total separate between races. In practical terms, this meant job reservation for whites, separate education systems, and the removal of Black people from urban centres deemed "white areas". The NP also promised to restrict Indian South Africans from owning property in white areas and proposed removing all political rights Colored voters in the Cape Province—an electorate that still retained limited franchise rights at the time.
The election campaign was marked by highly racialized propaganda. The National Party circulated posters and leaflets warning that under the United Party, South Africa would become a "Black man's country", portraying images of interracial couples and the supposed "chaos" of urban slums. In contrast, the United Party, while defending its record, largely failed to present a compelling alternate vision. Their campaign was often confusing and inconsistent with previous messaging of gradual integration. Smuts was nearly 80 years old at the time and was criticized for being out of touch with the domestic mood. His emphasis on international affairs and postwar diplomacy did little to address the fears and concerns of ordinary white voters, particularly in the conservative heartlands in the interior.
The National Party's message resonated with a critical mass of white voters. Though the United Party won a larger share of the popular vote (around 49% to the NP's 38%), the first-past-the-post electoral system—with its rural weighting and small constituency sizes in NP strongholds—allowed the National Party to gain a slim majority of seats in Parliament. Humiliatingly, Smuts lost his own seat of Standerton to an NP challenger, and the election proved that the UP was unable to counter the nationalists in an effective way. Gaining 27 seats, and with support from the Afrikaner Party's 9 seats, the NP formed a coalition with the AP to secure 79 seats, enabling Malan to form a government.
Government and Politics
South Africa was instituted as a union of four former British colonies in southern Africa: the Natal, Transvaal, Orange River, and the Cape. Formed in 1910 under the South Africa Act[g][14], it was a dominion of the British Empire with a parliamentary system modeled after the United Kingdom. Legislative authority was vested in a bicameral Parliament, and executive power was exercised by a Prime Minister and cabinet drawn from the majority party in the House of Assembly. The British monarch was represented locally by a Governor-General, who served as the ceremonial head of state. Although nominally democratic, political participation was highly restricted, with voting rights reserved for white citizens.[h][15]
National Party's Rise to Power
By 1948, the United Party's five-year mandate was nearing its conclusion, and the political landscape in South Africa was undergoing significant changes. The United Party, led by Jan Smuts, had historically been aligned with British interests and had supported South Africa's participation in World War II alongside the Allies. This decision had caused a split within the party in 1939, with many members, particularly those of Afrikaner descent, opposing involvement in the war. The aftermath of the war left the country grappling with economic challenges, including inflation and shortages of essential goods.[16] These issues contributed to growing discontent among the white electorate, especially in rural areas where economic hardships were more pronounced. The Herenigde Nasionale Party (HNP), under the leadership of Daniel François Malan, capitalized on this discontent by promoting a platform centered on Afrikaner nationalism and the formalization of racial segregation. Their campaign effectively tapped into white fears of black political aspirations and economic competition, presenting the United Party as too lenient and out of touch with the needs of the Afrikaner community. Despite receiving fewer votes, the HNP secured a narrow victory due to the malapportionment of electoral districts that favored rural areas, where they had stronger support.
Following its electoral victory in 1948, the National Party (NP) swiftly consolidated its political power and restructured South Africa's governance to align with its nationalist agenda. One of the initial steps taken by the NP government was the implementation of apartheid legislation. The Population Registration Act required that all individuals residing in South Africa be classified in one of the three racial groups: white, coloured, and black.[i] Subsequent legislation further supplemented the racial framework by stating where individuals of each race could live, work, and access education.
The NP government worked to centralize power within the executive branch. While South Africa remained a constitutional monarchy until 1961, the role of Prime Minister held significant authority. The Prime Minister controlled the executive branch, and with growing influence of the NP, the position became increasingly powerful. The Governor-General constitutionally held a powerful position, being able to grant or withhold royal assent to legislation; in practice, assent was almost never withheld, and the position became a rubber stamp for the government. In 1961, South Africa became a republic following a whites-only referendum, and the office of State President was established.
The NP also sought to exert influence over the judiciary and civil service. While the judiciary was nominally independent, many judges aligned themselves with the government's policies. One notable exception was during the Coloured vote constitutional crisis, in which the government packed the Supreme Court with judges aligned with the nationalist agenda to gain favorable rulings.[17] The civil service was similarly staffed with individual's sympathetic to the NP's objectives, facilitating the implementation of its policies across various governmental departments.
Republican era
Following the 1960 referendum, South Africa officially became a republic on 31 May 1961 and severed ties to the British Crown. The office of Governor-General was replaced by that of the State President, initially a ceremonial role elected by Parliament. However, this change marked the beginning of a broader trend towards the centralization of executive power. The Prime Minister remained the head of government, wielding significant authority within a dominant-party parliamentary system effectively controlled by the National Party.[18] The republic's political institutions were molded to preserve stability and continuity of rule, with a strong emphasis on internal security and administrative control.[19]
Politically, the government continued to rely on repression to manage internal opposition. Elections were skewed in favor of the National Party through electoral rigging, with the NP receiving a supermajority of seats in the House of Assembly following each election.[20] During this period, the country faced increasing political and social challenges, both domestically and internationally. As the anti-apartheid movement gained momentum, particularly in the 1970s, the government focused on maintaining the status quo by utilizing security forces. By the early 1980s, resistance to apartheid began growing drastically, and the new Prime Minister, P. W. Botha introduced mild reforms to quell internal and external resistance.
Tricameral Parliament
In 1983, the government held a referendum among the white electorate, seeking approval for a new constitution that would introduce a tricameral parliament.[21] The referendum, which passed with overwhelming support, was a key moment in the National Party's efforts to reform the political structure while maintaining white political dominance. The tricameral parliament was designed to grant limited representation to Coloured and Indian populations, who were previously excluded from full participation in the legislative process.[22] Under this system, the parliament was divided into three chambers: one for whites, one for Coloureds, and one for Indians. While each group had its own chamber, the white chamber retained essentially all legislative power, effectively ensuring that the white minority maintained control over the country's political and legislative agenda.
The tricameral parliament was part of the government's broader attempts to appease both internal demands for reform and external international pressure without conceding full political rights to Black South Africans. It was widely criticized, both domestically and internationally, as an attempt to divide the non-white population and perpetuate apartheid policies under the guise of reform. While the National Party presented the tricameral parliament as a step towards greater political representation for non-white South Africans, it effectively excluded the Black majority, who remained disenfranchised and without political power.
Transition to Reform
In early 1989, President P. W. Botha suffered a stroke. Due to his declining health, he resigned as leader of the National Party but remained State President. F. W. de Klerk was elected leader of the party in February 1989, however, he wasn't inaugurated until August of that year when Botha resigned as State President following internal party pressure.[23] His leadership came at a pivotal moment when the country was facing mounting internal resistance to apartheid, along with international isolation due to sanctions. Following his election by the tricameral parliament as State President, de Klerk called a snap election, in which the National Party retained a majority of seats albeit with a smaller majority.
On 2 February 1990, in his opening speech to parliament, de Klerk announced sweeping reforms of the political system, including the legalization of banned political parties, the release of Nelson Mandela from prison, and a negotiated transition towards constitutional democracy. The decision was opposed by the Conservative Party (CP), which advocated for retaining the apartheid system and rolling back the reforms done by President Botha. Throughout 1991, the majority of apartheid legislation was repealed, and the government launched CODESA, which began negotiating with the ANC and other black leaders towards fully ending apartheid.[24]
However, backlash from right-wing whites towards the negotiations led to the National Party suffering defeats in several by-elections to the Conservative Party. The CP maintained that de Klerk did not have a mandate to negotiate with the ANC after the defeats, and his legitimacy was called into question. To counter the Conservative's claims, de Klerk held a referendum in 1992[25], in which the white electorate voted overwhelmingly in favor of ending apartheid and continuing with the negotiations.
Following the referendum, negotiations continued, albeit slowly, culminating in the first multiracial democratic elections in South Africa in 1994. The election resulted in a landslide victory for the ANC, led by Nelson Mandela, and officially marked the end to apartheid and white-minority rule.[26]
South Africa administered South West Africa as a 5th province under a C-mandate from the League of Nations. While the League of Nations mandate was terminated in 1966, South Africa continued to occupy it until 1990, when the territory became the independent state of Namibia.
↑ South Africa administered South West Africa as a 5th province under a C-mandate from the League of Nations. While the League of Nations mandate was terminated in 1966, South Africa continued to occupy it until 1990, when the territory became the independent state of Namibia.
↑ Dutch was one of South Africa's official languages from 1910 until 1983, when it was removed from the constitution. It had largely been supplanted by Afrikaans in government and public use by the mid-20th century.
↑ From 1948 to 1984, the House of Assembly was the sole lower house, restricted to white representation. In 1984, it became the white chamber of the new Tricameral Parliament, alongside the House of Representatives (for Coloureds) and the House of Delegates (for Indians). Black South Africans were excluded from national representation throughout.
↑ The Cape Province had a limited form of non-white suffrage known as the Cape Qualified Franchise that continued into the Union of South Africa. It allowed for a small number of Black, Coloured, and Asian men to vote based on property and income qualifications. However, these rights were gradually eroded by successive legislation, particularly after the Union's formation.
↑ Indian was later added as a fourth racial classification.
↑ Davenport, T. R. H. (2011). The South African Republic: The Historical Background. Cambridge University Press. pp.300–325. ISBN978-0521843584.
↑ Grant, S. A. (1984). "The National Party and the Republic". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 31 (4): 587–607. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00012252.
↑ Welsh, David (1991). "The South African State and Politics under Apartheid". Journal of Southern African Studies. 17 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1080/03057079108708113.
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