Southern leopard frog

Last updated

Southern leopard frog
Southern Leopard Frog, Missouri Ozarks.JPG
Near the Ozarks in Missouri
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Anura
Family: Ranidae
Genus: Lithobates
Species:
L. sphenocephalus
Binomial name
Lithobates sphenocephalus
(Cope, 1889)
Synonyms
  • Rana sphenocephalaCope, 1886
  • Rana halecina
    Holbrook, 1842
  • Rana halecina sphenocephala
    Cope, 1886 [2]
  • Rana utricularia sphenocephala
    Pace, 1974

Lithobates sphenocephalus [1] [3] or Rana sphenocephala, [4] [5] [6] commonly known as the southern leopard frog, is a medium-sized anuran in the family Ranidae (the true frogs). The southern leopard frog is one of the 36 species currently or formerly classified in the Rana genus found in North America. [7] It is native to eastern North America from Kansas to New York to Florida. It is also an introduced species in some areas. [1] This species lives in cool, clear water in the north, whereas in the south it occurs in warmer turbid and murky waters of coastal and floodplain swamps, twilight zones of caves, and abandoned mines. [8]

Contents

Description

This frog is up to 13 cm (5.1 in) long. It is green or brown in color with a yellowish ridge along each side of the back. Rounded dark spots occur on the back and sides; a light spot is seen on each eardrum. Along with the dark colored reticulum, they have dark connected blotches of dark pigments and elongated features. [9] The male has larger fore limbs than the female. The breeding male's vocal sacs are spherical when inflated. The call is described as a "ratchet-like trill", [10] "chuckling croak", [11] or a "squeaky balloon-like sound". [12]

The larva is mottled, and the eyes are positioned on the top of the head. It grows to 7.6 cm (3.0 in) in length before maturing. The female lays an egg mass that is "baseball-sized" when close to hatching time, and contains up to 1500 eggs. [10] Some larva, eggs and embryos may be exposed to pesticides during their development causing significant mortality and developmental deformity. [13]

Ecology and behavior

This frog lives in many types of shallow freshwater habitat and sometimes in slightly brackish water. They usually look for wetter environments that have herbaceous plant cover and low canopy. [14] It is usually found close to water, but it can stay on dry land for long periods of time. [11] During warmer months, it moves away from the water for most of the time, [15] It is mostly nocturnal, [15] but it can be active during the day and the night, especially during rainfall. It breeds in the winter and spring, and sometimes in the fall. While there is a relationship between month and breeding activity, mean daily precipitation is the main factor that determines breeding activity. [11] [16] Breeding can occur throughout the year in southern states but typically occurs in early spring. [17] The southern populations breed the longest. [18] They can breed in a variety of aquatic habitats ranging from ephemeral to permanent. [19] The egg mass is connected to aquatic vegetation. [12] It typically nests communally in cooler weather, and individually in warmer weather. [20] [21] Communal egg deposition in cooler temperatures is thought to be an adaptation for increased egg and embryo survival, creating a thermal advantage, similar to that of the Wood frog. [22] Eggs hatch in 4 days to nearly two weeks. [15] It has been shown that L. sphenocephalus eggs hatch more quickly in response to the presence of predators such as crayfish. [23] The tadpoles take 50 to 75 days to develop to adulthood. [15]

In northern parts of its range, it is dormant during the winter, where it remains in well-oxygenated, unfrozen water bodies. [15] The recorded highest altitude of this species is 1000 feet. [24]

Southern leopard frogs feed primarily on insects, crayfish, and other invertebrates. They forage in upland areas during the summer. [6] In other parts of their range, their diet consists mainly of spiders, beetles, and gastropods such as snails. [25]

Range

This frog is widespread across eastern North America, especially the Southeast US. It is the most common frog in Florida and several other regions. It is an introduced species in The Bahamas, in Arizona [1] and at two locations in California. Southern leopard frogs are believed to have been introduced to the Prado Flood Control Basin via a shipment of aquatic fauna to the Chino Gun Club in 1929 or 1930; they are now common in areas of the basin undergoing urbanization. [15] A second established population of the species in California is now suspected, following the March 2016 discovery of two females in the San Joaquin River just northwest of Fresno on the border between Madera and Fresno Counties. [15]

Subspecies

The subspecies are: [15]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">American bullfrog</span> Species of amphibian

The American bullfrog, often simply known as the bullfrog in Canada and the United States, is a large true frog native to eastern North America. It typically inhabits large permanent water bodies such as swamps, ponds, and lakes. Bullfrogs can also be found in manmade habitats such as pools, koi ponds, canals, ditches and culverts. The bullfrog gets its name from the sound the male makes during the breeding season, which sounds similar to a bull bellowing. The bullfrog is large and is commonly eaten throughout its range, especially in the southern United States where they are plentiful.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">True frog</span> Family of frogs

True frogs is the common name for the frog family Ranidae. They have the widest distribution of any frog family. They are abundant throughout most of the world, occurring on all continents except Antarctica. The true frogs are present in North America, northern South America, Europe, Africa, and Asia. The Asian range extends across the East Indies to New Guinea and a single species, the Australian wood frog, has spread into the far north of Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leopard frog</span> Common name of several species of amphibian

Leopard frog is a generic name used to refer to various species in the true frog genus Lithobates. They all have similar coloration: brown or green with spots that form a leopard pattern. They are distinguished by their distribution and behavioral, morphological, and genetic differences. The range of the various species of leopard frogs extends from the Hudson Bay in Canada, throughout the United States, throughout Mexico and other parts of Central America, and possibly the very northern section of South America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Northern leopard frog</span> Species of amphibian

Lithobates pipiens formerly Rana pipiens, commonly known as the northern leopard frog, is a species of leopard frog from the true frog family, native to parts of Canada and the United States. It is the state amphibian of Minnesota and Vermont.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wood frog</span> Species of amphibian

Lithobates sylvaticus or Rana sylvatica, commonly known as the wood frog, is a frog species that has a broad distribution over North America, extending from the boreal forest of the north to the southern Appalachians, with several notable disjunct populations including lowland eastern North Carolina. The wood frog has garnered attention from biologists because of its freeze tolerance, relatively great degree of terrestrialism, interesting habitat associations, and relatively long-range movements.

<i>Rana</i> (genus) Genus of amphibians

Rana is a genus of frogs commonly known as the Holarctic true frogs, pond frogs or brown frogs. Members of this genus are found through much of Eurasia and western North America. Many other genera were formerly included here. These true frogs are usually largish species characterized by their slim waists and wrinkled skin; many have thin ridges running along their backs, but they generally lack "warts" as in typical toads. They are excellent jumpers due to their long, slender legs. The typical webbing found on their hind feet allows for easy movement through water. Coloration is mostly greens and browns above, with darker and yellowish spots.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pickerel frog</span> Species of amphibian

The pickerel frog is a small North American frog, characterized by the appearance of seemingly "hand-drawn" squares on its dorsal surface.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crawfish frog</span> Species of amphibian

The crawfish frog is a medium-sized species of frog native to the prairies and grasslands of the central United States. It gets its name because it inhabits the burrows of crayfish for most of the year. They have defined golden or black circles all over their body.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vegas Valley leopard frog</span> Species of amphibian

The Vegas Valley leopard frog, also known as the Las Vegas leopard frog, is an extinct species of frog. It once occurred in the Las Vegas Valley, as well as Tule Springs, Clark County, southern Nevada in the United States, at elevations between 370 and 760 m. It was believed to be the only frog endemic to the United States to have become extinct in modern times.

<i>Lithobates</i> Genus of amphibians

Lithobates, commonly known as the bullfrogs, is a genus of true frogs, of the family Ranidae. The name is derived from litho- (stone) and the Greek bates, meaning one that treads on rock, or rock climber. As presently defined, it includes many of eastern North America's most familiar aquatic frog species, including the American bullfrog, green frog, and the leopard frogs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gopher frog</span> Species of amphibian

The gopher frog is a species of frog in the family Ranidae, endemic to the south-eastern United States. It primarily inhabits the threatened sandhill communities, flatwoods, and scrub in the Atlantic coastal plain, where it is usually found near ponds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chiricahua leopard frog</span> Species of amphibian

The Chiricahua leopard frog is a species of frog in the family Ranidae, the true frogs.

<i>Lithobates heckscheri</i> Species of amphibian

The river frog is a species of aquatic frog in the family Ranidae. It is endemic to the southeastern United States. Its natural habitats are temperate rivers, swamps, freshwater lakes and freshwater marshes. It is threatened by habitat loss.

Moore's frog is a species of frog in the true frog family (Ranidae). It is endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental of Mexico.

The Maya Mountains frog is a species of frog in the family Ranidae found in Belize and possibly Guatemala. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, moist savanna, and rivers. This anuran is found primarily in the Mayan Mountain region between 100 and 915 metres of elevation.

The Guatemala plateau frog is a species of frog in the family Ranidae. It occurs in Guatemala and southern Mexico. It is impossible to morphologically distinguish this species from Lithobates forreri and Lithobates brownorum, and the validity of it has been questioned. It is an uncommon frog that inhabits cloud forests, including degraded forest, and grassland. Breeding takes place in streams and small temporary ponds. It is threatened by habitat degradation caused by agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, human settlement, and water pollution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Showy leopard frog</span> Species of amphibian

The showy leopard frog is a species of frog in the family Ranidae endemic to Mexico.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vaillant's frog</span> Species of amphibian

Vaillant's frog is a species of frog in the family Ranidae found in Central America. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests, subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical swamps, rivers, swamps, freshwater lakes, intermittent freshwater lakes, freshwater marshes, intermittent freshwater marshes, rural gardens, heavily degraded former forests, water storage areas, ponds, and canals and ditches.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lowland leopard frog</span> Species of amphibian

The lowland leopard frog is a species of frog in the family Ranidae that is found in Mexico and the United States.

<i>Lithobates clamitans</i> Species of amphibian

Lithobates clamitans or Rana clamitans, commonly known as the green frog, is a species of frog native to eastern North America. The two subspecies are the bronze frog and the northern green frog.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (2021). "Lithobates sphenocephalus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2021: e.T58723A177496797. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T58723A177496797.en . Retrieved 24 July 2024.
  2. Stejneger, L.H. and T. Barbour. (1917). A Check List of North American Amphibians and Reptiles. Harvard University Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts. p. 39
  3. Frost, D.-R.; et al. (2009). "Response to the Point Of View of Gregory B. Pauly, David M. Hillis, and David C. Cannatella, by the Anuran Subcommittee of the SSRA/HL/ASIH Scientific and Standard English Names List". Herpetologica. 65 (2): 136–153. doi:10.1655/09-009R1.1. S2CID   55147982.
  4. Hillis & Wilcox (2005), Hillis (2007), Stuart (2008), Pauly et al. (2009), AmphibiaWeb (2016)
  5. Yuan, Z.-Y.; et al. (2016). "Spatiotemporal diversification of the true frogs (genus Rana): A historical framework for a widely studied group of model organisms". Systematic Biology. 65 (5): 824–842. doi: 10.1093/sysbio/syw055 . hdl: 2292/43460 . PMID   27288482.
  6. 1 2 "Rana sphenocephala". amphibiaweb.org. AmphibiaWeb. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
  7. Conlon, J.M.; Halverson, T.; Dulka, J.; Platz, J.E.; Knoop, F.C. (1999). "Peptides of antimicrobial activity of the brevinin-1 family isolated from skin secretions of the southern leopard frog, Rana sphenocephala". The Journal of Peptide Research. 54 (6): 522–527. doi:10.1034/j.1399-3011.1999.00123.x.
  8. McAllister, Chris T.; Trauth, Stanley E.; Bursey, Charles R. (1995). "Parasites of the Pickerel Frog, Rana palustris (Anura: Ranidae), from the Southern Part of Its Range". The Southwestern Naturalist. 40 (1): 111–116. JSTOR   30054403.
  9. Schlesinger, M.; Feinberg, J. A.; Nazdrowicz, N. H.; Kleopfer, J. D.; Beane, J. C.; Bunnell, J. F.; et al. (2018). "Follow-up ecological studies for cryptic species discoveries: Decrypting the leopard frogs of the eastern U.S." PLoS ONE. 13 (11). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0205805 . Art. No. e0205805.
  10. 1 2 NatureServe. 2015. Lithobates sphenocephalus. NatureServe Explorer Version 7.1. Accessed 15 June 2016.
  11. 1 2 3 Norman, C. Southern Leopard Frog (Rana (Lithobates) sphenocephala). Savannah River Ecology Laboratory. University of Georgia.
  12. 1 2 Southern Leopard Frog (Lithobates sphenocephalus). Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation. University of Florida.
  13. Bridges, C. M. (2000). "Long-Term Effects of Pesticide Exposure at Various Life Stages of the Southern Leopard Frog (Rana sphenocephala)". Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 39 (1): 91–96. doi:10.1007/s002440010084.
  14. Pitt, A. L.; Tavano, J. J.; Baldwin, R. F.; Stegenga, B. S. (2017). "Movement Ecology and Habitat Use of Three Sympatric Anuran Species" (PDF). Herpetological Conservation and Biology. 12 (1): 212–224. S2CID   165161178 . Retrieved 24 July 2024.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Lithobates sphenocephalus Southern Leopard Frog. California Herps.
  16. Steen, David A.; McClure, Christopher J.W.; Graham, Sean P. (April 2013). "Relative influence of weather and season on anuran calling activity". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 91 (7): 462–467. doi:10.1139/cjz-2012-0266. ISSN   0008-4301.
  17. Erdmann, J.A.; Godwin, C.D.; Villalba-Guerra, M.R.; Campbell, D.C.; Donini, J.; Parker, C.E.; Rupp, A.E.E.; Weyand, C.A.; Partin, M.A.J.; Borgardt, T.; Beachy, C.K. (2018). "Larval Life History of Lithobates sphenocephalus (southern leopard frog) in southeast Louisiana". Southeastern Naturalist. 17 (2): 221–229. doi:10.1656/058.017.0204. JSTOR   26496226.
  18. Hughes, Daniel Frederick; Meshaka Jr., Walter E.; Delis, Pablo R. (2017). "Reproduction and growth of the Southern Leopard Frog, Lithobates sphenocephalus (Cope, 1886), in Virginia: implications for seasonal shifts in response to global climate change". Basic & Applied Herpetology. 31: 17–31. doi: 10.11160/bah.53 .
  19. Adams, C.K. & Saenz, D. (2012). "Leaf litter of invasive Chinese tallow (Triadica sebifera) negatively affects hatching success of an aquatic breeding anuran, the Southern Leopard Frog (Lithobates sphenocephalus)". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 90 (8): 991–998. doi:10.1139/z2012-067.
  20. McCallum, Malcolm L.; Trauth, Stanley E.; Mary, Michelle N.; McDowell, Charles; Wheeler, Benjamin A. (2004). "Fall breeding of the southern leopard frog (Rana sphenocephala) in northeastern Arkansas". Southeastern Naturalist. 3 (3): 401–408. doi:10.1656/1528-7092(2004)003[0401:FBOTSL]2.0.CO;2. S2CID   86233608.
  21. Pintar, Matthew R.; Resetarits, William J. (2018). "Variation in pond hydroperiod affects larval growth in southern leopard frogs, Lithobates sphenocephalus". Copeia. 106 (1): 70–76. doi:10.1643/CE-17-696. S2CID   53590323.
  22. Caldwell, Janalee P. (1986). "Selection of Egg Deposition Sites: A Seasonal Shift in the Southern Leopard Frog, Rana sphenocephala". Copeia. 1986 (1): 249–253. doi:10.2307/1444923. JSTOR   1444923.
  23. Saenz, Daniel (September 1, 2003). "Accelerated Hatching of Southern Leopard Frog (Rana sphenocephala) Eggs in Response to the Presence of a Crayfish (Procambarus nigrocinctus) Predator". Copeia. 2003 (3): 646–649. doi:10.1643/CE-02-172R1. S2CID   86158871.
  24. Pickens, A. L. (1927). "Amphibians of Upper South Carolina". Copeia (165): 106–110. doi:10.2307/1437105. ISSN   0045-8511. JSTOR   1437105.
  25. Forstner, J.M.; Forstner, M.R.J.; Dixon, J.R. (1998). "Ontogenetic effects on prey selection and food habits of two sympatric East Texas ranids: the southern leopard frog, Rana sphenocephala, and the bronze frog, Rana clamitans clamitans". Herpetological Review. 29 (4): 208–211. Retrieved 24 July 2024 via Internet Archive.
  26. Meade, Thomas. "Lithobates sphenocephalus sphenocephalus (Florida Leopard Frog)". Animal Diversity Web.
  27. "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org.

Further reading