Heterorhabditis is a genus of nematodes belonging to the order Rhabditida. All species of this genus are obligate parasites of insects, and some are used as biological control agents for the control of pest insects.
Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) are a group of nematodes, that cause death to insects. The term entomopathogenic has a Greek origin, with entomon, meaning insect, and pathogenic, which means causing disease. They are animals that occupy a bio control middle ground between microbial pathogens and predator/parasitoids, and are habitually grouped with pathogens, most likely because of their symbiotic relationship with bacteria. Although many other parasitic thread worms cause diseases in living organisms, entomopathogenic nematodes, are specific in only infecting insects. Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) live parasitically inside the infected insect host, and so they are termed as endoparasitic. They infect many different types of insects living in the soil like the larval forms of moths, butterflies, flies and beetles as well as adult forms of beetles, grasshoppers and crickets. EPNs have been found in all over the world and a range of ecologically diverse habitats. They are highly diverse, complex and specialized. The most commonly studied entomopathogenic nematodes are those that can be used in the biological control of harmful insects, the members of Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae. They are the only insect-parasitic nematodes possessing an optimal balance of biological control attributes..
The nematodes or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda, with plant-parasitic nematodes also known as eelworms. They are a diverse animal phylum inhabiting a broad range of environments. Taxonomically, they are classified along with insects and other moulting animals in the clade Ecdysozoa, and unlike flatworms, have tubular digestive systems with openings at both ends. Like tardigrades, they have a reduced number of Hox genes, but their sister phylum Nematomorpha has kept the ancestral protostome Hox genotype, which shows that the reduction has occurred within the nematode phylum.
Xenorhabdus is a genus of motile, gram-negative bacteria from the family of the Morganellaceae. All the species of the genus are only known to live in symbiosis with soil entomopathogenic nematodes from the genus Steinernema.
Heterorhabditis megidis is a species of nematodes in the genus Heterorhabditis. All species of this genus are obligate parasites of insects, and some are used as biological control agents for the control of pest insects.
Steinernema scapterisci, the mole cricket nematode, is a species of nematode in the order Rhabditida. It is a parasite of insects in the order Orthoptera, the grasshoppers, crickets and their allies. Native to southern South America, it was introduced into Florida in the United States in an effort to provide a biological control of pest (Neoscapteriscus) mole crickets.
Xenorhabdus bovienii is a bacterium from the genus of Xenorhabdus which has been isolated from the nematode Steinernema bibionis, Steinernema krsussei, Steinernema affine, Steinernema carpocapsae, Steinernema feltiae, Steinernema intermedium, Steinernema jollieti and Steinernema weiseri. Xenorhabdus bovienii produces N-Butanoylpyrrothine, N-(3-Methylbutanoyl)pyrrothine and Xenocyloins.
Xenorhabdus cabanillasii is a bacterium from the genus of Xenorhabdus which has been isolated from the nematode Steinernema riobrave in Texas in the United States. Xenorhabdus cabanillasii produces the antifungal metabolite Cabanillasin.
Xenorhabdus hominickii is a bacterium from the genus of Xenorhabdus which has been isolated from the nematodes Steinernema karii in Kenya and Steinernema monticolum from Korea.
Xenorhabdus indica is a bacterium from the genus of Xenorhabdus which has been isolated from the nematodes Steinernema thermophilum and Steinernema yirgalemense. Xenorhabdus indica produces the Taxlllaids A–G.
Xenorhabdus kozodoii is a bacterium from the genus of Xenorhabdus which has been isolated from the nematode Steinernema arenarium in Voronez in Russia and from the nematode Steinernema apuliae in Italy.
Xenorhabdus stockiae is a bacterium from the genus of Xenorhabdus which has been isolated from the nematode Steinernema siamkayai in Thailand.
Xenorhabdus japonica is a bacterium from the genus of Xenorhabdus which has been isolated from the nematode Steinernema kushidai in Japan.
Xenorhabdus poinarii is a bacterium from the genus of Xenorhabdus which has been isolated from the nematodes Steinernema glaseri and Steinernema cubanum.
Steinernema carpocapsae is an entomopathogenic nematode and a member of the family Steinernematidae. It is a parasitic roundworm that has evolved an insect-killing symbiosis with bacteria, and kills its hosts within a few days of infection. This parasite releases its bacterial symbiont along with a variety of proteins into the host after infection, and together the bacteria and nematode overcome host immunity and kill the host quickly. As a consequence, S. carpocapsae has been widely adapted for use as a biological control agent in agriculture and pest control. S. carpocapsae is considered a generalist parasite and has been effectively used to control a variety of insects including: Webworms, cutworms, armyworms, girdlers, some weevils, and wood-borers. This species is an example of an "ambush" forager, standing on its tail in an upright position near the soil surface and attaching to passing hosts, even capable of jumping. As an ambush forager, S. carpocapsae is thought to be especially effective when applied against highly mobile surface-adapted insects. S. carpocapsae can sense carbon dioxide production, making the spiracles a key portal of entry into its insect hosts. It is most effective at temperatures ranging from 22–28 °C (72–82 °F).
Steinernema is a genus of nematodes in the family of Steinernematidae. The genus Steinernema is named after the nematologist Gotthold Steiner.
Steinernema xueshanense is a nematode species from the genus of Steinernema. Steinernema xueshanense is named after the Xue Shan mountains.
Steinernema hermaphroditum is a species of nematodes in the Steinernematidae family.
Steinernema riobrave is a species of nematodes belonging to the family Steinernematidae.
Necromeny is a relationship, where a parasite infects a host and wait inside its body until its death, at which point they develop and complete their life-cycle on the cadaver, feeding on the decaying matter and the subsequent bacterial growth.
