The Beggar's Opera

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The Beggar's Opera
Satirical ballad opera by Johann Christoph Pepusch
William Hogarth 016.jpg
Painting based on scene 11, act 3 by William Hogarth, c. 1728, in the Tate Britain
Librettist John Gay
Premiere
29 January 1728 (1728-01-29)
Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre, London

The Beggar's Opera [1] is a ballad opera in three acts written in 1728 by John Gay with music arranged by Johann Christoph Pepusch. It is one of the watershed plays in Augustan drama and is the only example of the once thriving genre of satirical ballad opera to remain popular today. Ballad operas were satiric musical plays that used some of the conventions of opera, but without recitative. The lyrics of the airs in the piece are set to popular broadsheet ballads, opera arias, church hymns and folk tunes of the time.

Contents

The Beggar's Opera premiered at the Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre on 29 January 1728 [2] and ran for 62 consecutive performances, the second-longest run in theatre history up to that time (after 146 performances of Robert Cambert's Pomone in Paris in 1671). [3] The work became Gay's greatest success and has been played ever since; it has been called "the most popular play of the eighteenth century". [4] In 1920, The Beggar's Opera began a revival run of 1,463 performances at the Lyric Theatre in Hammersmith, London, which was one of the longest runs in history for any piece of musical theatre at that time. [5]

The piece satirised Italian opera, which had become popular in London. According to The New York Times : "Gay wrote the work more as an anti-opera than an opera, one of its attractions to its 18th-century London public being its lampooning of the Italian opera style and the English public's fascination with it." [6] [7] Instead of the grand music and themes of opera, the work uses familiar tunes and characters that were ordinary people. Some of the songs were by opera composers like Handel, but only the most popular of these were used. The audience could hum along with the music and identify with the characters. The story satirised politics, poverty and injustice, focusing on the theme of corruption at all levels of society. Lavinia Fenton, the first Polly Peachum, became an overnight success. Her pictures were in great demand, verses were written to her and books published about her. After appearing in several comedies, and then in numerous repetitions of The Beggar's Opera, she ran away with her married lover, Charles Powlett, 3rd Duke of Bolton.

Bertolt Brecht (working from a translation into German by Elisabeth Hauptmann) adapted the work into Die Dreigroschenoper ( The Threepenny Opera ) in 1928, sticking closely to the original plot and characters but with a new libretto, and mostly new music by Kurt Weill.

Origin and analysis

The original idea of the opera came from Jonathan Swift, who wrote to Alexander Pope on 30 August 1716 asking "...what think you, of a Newgate pastoral among the thieves and whores there?" Their friend, Gay, decided that it would be a satire rather than a pastoral opera. For his original production in 1728, Gay intended all the songs to be sung without any accompaniment, adding to the shocking and gritty atmosphere of his conception. [8] However, a week or so before the opening night, John Rich, the theatre director, insisted on having Johann Christoph Pepusch, a composer associated with his theatre, write a formal French overture (based on two of the songs in the opera, including a fugue based on Lucy's 3rd act song "I'm Like A Skiff on the Ocean Toss'd") and also to arrange the 69 songs. Although there is no external evidence of who the arranger was, inspection of the original 1729 score, formally published by Dover Books, demonstrates that Pepusch was the arranger. [9]

The work took satiric aim at the passionate interest of the upper classes in Italian opera, and simultaneously set out to lampoon the notable Whig statesman Robert Walpole, and politicians in general, as well as such notorious criminals as Jonathan Wild, the thief-taker, Claude Duval, the highwayman, and Jack Sheppard, the prison-breaker. It also deals with social inequity on a broad scale, primarily through the comparison of low-class thieves and whores with their aristocratic and bourgeois "betters."

The airs of The Beggar's Opera in part allude to well-known popular ballads, and Gay's lyrics sometimes play with their wording in order to amuse and entertain the audience. [10] Gay used Scottish folk melodies mostly taken from the poet Allan Ramsay's hugely popular collection The Gentle Shepherd (1725) plus two French tunes (including the carol "Bergers, écoutez la musique!" for his song "Fill Every Glass"), to serve his hilariously pointed and irreverent texts. Macheath's satire on modern society ("The modes of the court so common are grown") is also sung to Henry Purcell's Lillibullero. Pepusch composed an overture and arranged all the tunes shortly before the opening night at Lincoln's Inn Fields on 28 January 1728. However, all that remains of Pepusch's score are the overture (with complete instrumentation) and the melodies of the songs without figured basses. Various reconstructions have been attempted, and a 1990 reconstruction of the score by American composer Jonathan Dobin has been used in a number of modern productions. [6]

Gay uses the operatic norm of three acts (as opposed to the standard in spoken drama of the time of five acts), and tightly controls the dialogue and plot so that there are surprises in each of the forty-five fast-paced scenes and 68 short songs. The success of the opera was accompanied by a public desire for keepsakes and mementos, ranging from images of Polly on fans and clothing, playing cards and fire-screens, broadsides featuring all the characters, and the rapidly published musical score of the opera.

The play is sometimes seen to be a reactionary call for libertarian values in response to the growing power of the Whig party. [11] It may also have been influenced by the then-popular ideology of John Locke that men should be allowed their natural liberties; these democratic strains of thought influenced the populist movements of the time, of which The Beggar's Opera was a part. [11]

The character of Macheath has been considered by critics as both a hero and an anti-hero. Harold Gene Moss, arguing that Macheath is a noble character, has written, "[one] whose drives are toward love and the vital passions, Macheath becomes an almost Christ-like victim of the decadence surrounding him." Contrarily, John Richardson in the peer-reviewed journal Eighteenth-Century Life has argued that Macheath is powerful as a literary figure precisely because he stands against any interpretation, "against expectation and illusion." [11] He is now thought to have been modeled on the gentleman highwayman, Claude Duval, [12] [13] although interest in criminals had recently been raised by Jack Sheppard's escapes from Newgate. [14]

The Beggar's Opera has had an influence on all later British stage comedies, especially on nineteenth century British comic opera and the modern musical.

Roles

Mr Peachum – powerful leader of criminals who betrays or discards his thieves, highwaymen, and prostitutes when they are no longer useful to him
Lockit – jail keeper 
Macheath – captain of gang of robbers; a womanizer who professes to love both Polly and Lucy
Filch – the Peachums' loyal but squeamish servant
Jemmy TwitcherMacheath's Gang
Crook-Finger'd Jack
Wat Dreary
Robin of Bagshot
Nimming Ned – ("Nimming" meaning thieving)
Harry Padington
Finger Dan
Matt of the Mint
Ben Budge
Beggar (serves as Narrator)
Player
Mrs Peachum
Polly Peachum
Lucy Lockit
Mrs Diana Trapes
Mrs CoaxerWomen of the Town
Dolly Trull – ("Trull" meaning prostitute)
Mrs Vixen
Betty Doxy – ("Doxy" meaning slut)
Jenny Diver
Mrs Slammekin – ("Slammerkin" meaning slut)
Suky Tawdry
Molly Brazen
Jailor
Drawer
Constables

Synopsis

Act 1

Peachum, a fence and thief-catcher, justifies his actions. [15] Mrs Peachum, overhearing her husband's blacklisting of unproductive thieves, protests regarding one of them: Bob Booty (the nickname of Robert Walpole). The Peachums discover that Polly, their daughter, has secretly married Macheath, the famous highwayman, who is Peachum's principal client. Upset to learn they will no longer be able to use Polly in their business, Peachum and his wife ask how Polly will support such a husband "in Gaming, Drinking and Whoring." Nevertheless, they conclude that the match may be more profitable to the Peachums if the husband can be killed for his money. They leave to carry out this errand. However, Polly has hidden Macheath.

Act 2

Macheath goes to a tavern where he is surrounded by women of dubious virtue who, despite their class, compete in displaying perfect drawing-room manners, although the subject of their conversation is their success in picking pockets and shoplifting. Macheath discovers, too late, that two of them (Jenny Diver, Suky Tawdry) have contracted with Peachum to capture him, and he becomes a prisoner in Newgate prison. The prison is run by Peachum's associate, the corrupt jailer Lockit. His daughter, Lucy Lockit, has the opportunity to scold Macheath for having agreed to marry her and then broken this promise. She tells him that to see him tortured would give her pleasure. Macheath pacifies her, but Polly arrives and claims him as her husband. Macheath tells Lucy that Polly is crazy. Lucy helps Macheath to escape by stealing her father's keys. Her father learns of Macheath's promise to marry her and worries that if Macheath is recaptured and hanged, his fortune might be subject to Peachum's claims. Lockit and Peachum discover Macheath's hiding place. They decide to split his fortune.

Act 3

Meanwhile, Polly visits Lucy to try to reach an agreement, but Lucy tries to poison her. Polly narrowly avoids the poisoned drink, and the two girls find out that Macheath has been recaptured owing to the inebriated Mrs Diana Trapes. They plead with their fathers for Macheath's life. However, Macheath now finds that four more pregnant women each claim him as their husband. He declares that he is ready to be hanged. The narrator (the Beggar), notes that although in a properly moral ending Macheath and the other villains would be hanged, the audience demands a happy ending, and so Macheath is reprieved, and all are invited to a dance of celebration, to celebrate his wedding to Polly.

Selected musical numbers

Reaction

The Beggar's Opera was met with widely varying reactions. Its popularity was documented in The Craftsman with the following entries:

"This Week a Dramatick Entertainment has been exhibited at the Theatre in Lincoln's-Inn-Fields, entitled The Beggar's Opera, which has met with a general Applause, insomuch that the Waggs say it has made Rich very Gay, and probably will make Gay very Rich." (3 February 1728)

"We hear that the British Opera, commonly called The Beggar's Opera, continues to be acted, at the Theatre in Lincoln's-Inn Fields with general Applause, to the great Mortification of the Performers and Admirers of the Outlandish Opera in the Haymarket." (17 February 1728) [16]

Two weeks after opening night, an article appeared in The Craftsman, the leading opposition newspaper, ostensibly protesting at Gay's work as libellous and ironically assisting him in satirising the Walpole establishment by taking the government's side:

It will, I know, be said, by these libertine Stage-Players, that the Satire is general; and that it discovers a Consciousness of Guilt for any particular Man to apply it to Himself. But they seem to forget that there are such things as Innuendo's (a never-failing Method of explaining Libels)… Nay the very Title of this Piece and the principal Character, which is that of a Highwayman, sufficiently discover the mischievous Design of it; since by this Character every Body will understand One, who makes it his Business arbitrarily to levy and collect Money on the People for his own Use, and of which he always dreads to give an Account – Is not this squinting with a vengeance, and wounding Persons in Authority through the Sides of a common Malefactor? [17]

The commentator notes the Beggar's last remark: "That the lower People have their Vices in a Degree as well as the Rich, and are punished for them," implying that rich People are not so punished. [18]

Criticism of Gay's opera continued long after its publication. In 1776, John Hawkins wrote in his History of Music that due to the opera's popularity, "Rapine and violence have been gradually increasing" solely because the rising generation of young men desired to imitate the character Macheath. Hawkins blamed Gay for tempting these men with "the charms of idleness and criminal pleasure," which Hawkins saw Macheath as representing and glorifying. [19]

Legacy

Sequel

In 1729, Gay wrote a sequel, Polly , set in the West Indies: Macheath, sentenced to transportation, has escaped and become a pirate, while Mrs Trapes has set up in white-slaving and shanghais Polly to sell her to the wealthy planter Mr Ducat. Polly escapes dressed as a boy, and after many adventures marries the son of a Carib chief.

The political satire, however, was even more pointed in Polly than in The Beggar's Opera, with the result that Prime Minister Robert Walpole leaned on the Lord Chamberlain to have it banned, and it was not performed until fifty years later. [20]

Adaptations

Frederic Austin's 1920s version Beggar's Opera.jpg
Frederic Austin's 1920s version

As was typical practice of the time in London, a commemorative "score" of the entire opera was assembled and published quickly. As was common, this consisted of the fully arranged overture followed by the melodies of the 69 songs, supported by only the simplest bass accompaniments. There are no indications of dance music, accompanying instrumental figures or the like, except in three instances: Lucy's "Is Then His Fate Decree'd Sir" – one measure of descending scale marked "Viol." –; Trape's "In the Days of My Youth", in which the "fa la la chorus is written as "viol."; and the final reprieve dance, Macheath's "Thus I Stand Like A Turk", which includes two sections of 16 measures of "dance" marked "viol." (See the 1729 score, formerly published by Dover).

The absence of the original performing parts has allowed producers and arrangers free rein. The tradition of personalised arrangements, dating back at least as far as Thomas Arne's later 18th century arrangements, continues today, running the gamut of musical styles from Romantic to Baroque: Austin, Britten, Sargent, Bonynge, Dobin and other conductors have each imbued the songs with a personal stamp, highlighting different aspects of characterisation. The hornpipe tune to which Nancy Dawson danced between acts in The Beggar's Opera in the mid-1700s is now used for "Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush". [21] Following is a list of some of the most highly regarded 20th-century arrangements and settings of the opera.

Related Research Articles

<i>The Threepenny Opera</i> 1928 musical play by Bertolt Brecht and Kurt Weill

The Threepenny Opera is a German "play with music" by Bertolt Brecht, adapted from a translation by Elisabeth Hauptmann of John Gay's 18th-century English ballad opera, The Beggar's Opera, and four ballads by François Villon, with music by Kurt Weill. Although there is debate as to how much, if any, contribution Hauptmann might have made to the text, Brecht is usually listed as sole author.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">John Gay</span> English poet and playwright (1685–1732)

John Gay was an English poet and dramatist and member of the Scriblerus Club. He is best remembered for The Beggar's Opera (1728), a ballad opera. The characters, including Captain Macheath and Polly Peachum, became household names.

"Mack the Knife" or "The Ballad of Mack the Knife" is a song composed by Kurt Weill with lyrics by Bertolt Brecht for their 1928 music drama The Threepenny Opera. The song tells of a knife-wielding criminal of the London underworld from the musical named Macheath, the "Mack the Knife" of the title.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lavinia Fenton</span> English actress

Lavinia Powlett, Duchess of Bolton, known by her stagename as Lavinia Fenton, was an English actress who was the mistress and later the wife of the 3rd Duke of Bolton.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ballad opera</span>

The ballad opera is a genre of English stage entertainment that originated in the early 18th century, and continued to develop over the following century and later. Like the earlier comédie en vaudeville and the later Singspiel, its distinguishing characteristic is the use of tunes in a popular style with spoken dialogue. These English plays were 'operas' mainly insofar as they satirized the conventions of the imported opera seria. Music critic Peter Gammond describes the ballad opera as "an important step in the emancipation of both the musical stage and the popular song."

<i>The Beggars Opera</i> (film) 1953 film by Peter Brook

The Beggar's Opera is a 1953 British historical musical film, a Technicolor adaptation of John Gay's 1728 ballad opera of the same name. The film, directed by Peter Brook in his feature film debut, stars Laurence Olivier, Hugh Griffith, Dorothy Tutin, Stanley Holloway, Daphne Anderson and Athene Seyler. Olivier and Holloway provide their own singing, but Tutin and others were dubbed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Augustan drama</span> Early 18th-century English theatre

Augustan drama can refer to the dramas of Ancient Rome during the reign of Caesar Augustus, but it most commonly refers to the plays of Great Britain in the early 18th century, a subset of 18th-century Augustan literature. King George I referred to himself as "Augustus," and the poets of the era took this reference as apropos, as the literature of Rome during Augustus moved from historical and didactic poetry to the poetry of highly finished and sophisticated epics and satire.

<i>Mack the Knife</i> (1989 film) 1989 film

Mack the Knife is a 1989 romantic comedy musical film written and directed by Menahem Golan, a film adaptation of the 1928 Brecht/Weill musical The Threepenny Opera. The film stars Raúl Juliá as Captain Macheath, Richard Harris as Mr. Peachum, Julia Migenes as Jenny Diver, Julie Walters as Mrs. Peachum, and Roger Daltrey as the Street Singer. Brecht and Weill's score and libretto was adapted by Golan, Marc Blitzstein, and Dov Seltzer.

Imminent, Indeed is a gothic adaptation of John Gay’s The Beggar’s Opera. Written and directed by Bryn Manion with the assistance of Wendy Remington. Produced by the Creatives and the founding board members of the company of Aisling Arts. This adaptation focuses on Polly Peachum's side of the story and her world as it trips alongside that of Jenny Diver, a new Peachum brother, several comically nefarious underlings, and of course, the ever villainous Henry Macheath.

<i>Beggars Holiday</i> 1946 musical

Beggar's Holiday is a musical with a book and lyrics by John La Touche and music by Duke Ellington.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Frederic Austin</span> English composer and baritone (1872–1952)

Frederic William Austin was an English baritone singer, a musical teacher and composer in the period 1905–30. He is best remembered for his restoration and production of The Beggar's Opera by John Gay and Johann Christoph Pepusch, its sequel, Polly, in 1920–23, and for his popularization of the melody of the carol The Twelve Days of Christmas. Austin was the older brother of the composer Ernest Austin (1874–1947).

"Pirate Jenny" is a well-known song from The Threepenny Opera by Kurt Weill, with lyrics by Bertolt Brecht. The English lyrics are by Marc Blitzstein. It is one of the best known songs in the opera, after "Mack the Knife".

<i>Little Jack Sheppard</i>

Little Jack Sheppard is a burlesque melodrama written by Henry Pottinger Stephens and William Yardley, with music by Meyer Lutz, with songs contributed by Florian Pascal, Corney Grain, Arthur Cecil, Michael Watson, Henry J. Leslie, Alfred Cellier and Hamilton Clarke. The comedy lampooned the serious plays based on the life of Jack Sheppard, especially the popular 1839 play by John Buckstone, which was in turn based on the novel of that year by William Harrison Ainsworth.

<i>The Threepenny Opera</i> (film) 1931 film

The Threepenny Opera is a 1931 German musical film directed by G. W. Pabst. Produced by Seymour Nebenzal's Nero-Film for Tonbild-Syndikat AG (Tobis), Berlin and Warner Bros. Pictures GmbH, Berlin, the film is loosely based on the 1928 musical theatre success of the same name by Bertolt Brecht and Kurt Weill. As was usual in the early sound film era, Pabst also directed a French language version of the film, L'Opéra de quat'sous, with some variation of plot details. A planned English version went unproduced. The two existing versions were released on home video by The Criterion Collection.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Captain Macheath</span> Fictional opera character

Captain Macheath is a fictional character who appears both in John Gay's The Beggar's Opera (1728), its sequel Polly (1777), and roughly 150 years later in Bertolt Brecht's The Threepenny Opera (1928). Even though written "Macheath", the name is pronounced as if it were "MacHeath".

Peachum may refer to:

<i>Threepenny Novel</i>

Threepenny Novel is a 1934 German novel by the dramatist and poet Bertolt Brecht, first published in Amsterdam by Allert de Lange in 1934. It is similar in structure to his more famous The Threepenny Opera and features several of the same characters such as Macheath, together with a general anti-capitalist focus and a didactic technique that is often associated with the dramatist. It is a novel that has been the focus of much critical attention and that is often described as both a continuation and a variation of the themes and motifs of Brecht's other work that focuses on alienation and on the communication of a social message. It can be seen alternatively as a careful development of the detective novel genre and as scathing criticism of the social conditions and the economic practices of German businesses and banks in the middle of the 20th century.

Polly is a ballad opera with text by John Gay and music by Johann Christoph Pepusch. It is a sequel to Gay's The Beggar's Opera. Due to censorship, the opera was not performed in Gay's lifetime. It had its world premiere on 19 June 1777 at the Haymarket Theatre in London. A revised and edited version of the score by Clifford Bax and Frederic Austin premiered on 30 December 1922 at the Kingsway Theatre in London.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anne Sharp</span>

Anne Sharp was a Scottish coloratura soprano particularly associated with the operas of Benjamin Britten.

This is a summary of 1923 in music in the United Kingdom.

References

  1. ↑ "Bibliomania: Free Online Literature and Study Guides". bibliomania.com. Archived from the original on 21 December 2010.
  2. ↑ Penguin Pocket On This Day. Penguin Reference Library. 2006. ISBN   0-14-102715-0.
  3. ↑ "Stage Beauty".
  4. ↑ Carlson, Marvin (1975). "A Fresh Look at Hogarth's 'Beggar's Opera'". Educational Theatre Journal . 27 (1): 31–39. doi:10.2307/3206338. JSTOR   3206338.
  5. ↑ Although when The Beggar's Opera opened in 1920, Chu Chin Chow had been running since 1916, receiving 2,238 performances up to 1921. Source: "Long runs in London". World Theatres. Archived from the original on 23 June 2016. Retrieved 19 June 2016.
  6. 1 2 3 Dobin, Jonathan. Jonathan Dobin's The Beggar's Opera website Archived 31 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine , accessed 6 November 2009
  7. ↑ Kozinn, Allan. "The Beggar's Opera, An 18th-Century Satire", Archived 26 July 2016 at the Wayback Machine The New York Times , 10 May 1990, accessed 6 November 2009
  8. ↑ Traubner, Richard. Operetta: A Theatrical History Archived 29 June 2014 at the Wayback Machine , p. 11
  9. ↑ "Baroque Composers", Archived 30 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine Baroque Arts
  10. ↑ Beyer, Stefan (2012). John Gay - Satiriker ohne Zielscheibe. Saarbrücken. p. 66. ISBN   978-3639390919.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  11. 1 2 3 Richardson, John (Fall 2000). "John Gay, The Beggar's Opera, and Forms of Resistance". Eighteenth-Century Life. 24 (3): 19–30. doi:10.1215/00982601-24-3-19. S2CID   145487729.
  12. ↑ Mackie, Erin. Rakes, Highwaymen, and Pirates. The Making of the Modern Gentleman in the Eighteenth Century Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 2009. ISBN   978-1-4214-1385-3
  13. ↑ Sugden, John and Philip. The Thief of Hearts: Claude Duval and the Gentleman Highwayman in Fact and Fiction. Arnside, Cumbria: Forty Steps, 2015. ISBN   978-0-9934183-0-3.
  14. ↑ Moore, Lucy (1997). The Thieves' Opera. Viking. p. 227. ISBN   0-670-87215-6.
  15. ↑ His dark song of self-justification is the only song that appears in both The Beggar's Opera and The Threepenny Opera (as "Morgenchoral des Peachum"). The lyrics in the latter version are very different, but the melody and the position of the song in the libretto are retained.
  16. ↑ "The first production." The Beggar's Opera. Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 10 August 2011.
  17. ↑ Guerinot & Jilg 1976, pp. 87–88.
  18. ↑ Guerinot & Jilg 1976, p. 89.
  19. ↑ Kidson, Frank. "The Beggar's Opera" The Musical Times 1 January 1921: 18–19.
  20. ↑ O'Shaughnessy, Toni-Lynn (Winter 1987–1988). "A Single Capacity in The Beggar's Opera". Eighteenth-Century Studies . Johns Hopkins University Press. 21 (2): 212–227. doi:10.2307/2739105. JSTOR   2739105.(subscription required)
  21. ↑ A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers and Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. Southern Illinois University Press. 1975. p. 239.
  22. ↑ 1948 Benjamin Britten version of The Beggar's Opera Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine at the Guide to Musical Theatre
  23. ↑ "Britten Thematic Catalogue – BTC1020 – The Baggar's Opera". www.brittenproject.org. May 1948. Archived from the original on 3 April 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
  24. ↑ Britten, Benjamin; Mitchell, Donald; Reed, Philip; Cooke, Mervyn (1 January 1991). Letters from a Life: 1952–1957. Boydell Press. ISBN   978-1-84383-382-6.
  25. ↑ Takarazuka Revue Archived 26 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  26. ↑ "The Convict's Opera – STC & Out of Joint" Archived 22 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine by Jack Teiwes, Australian Stage, 8 October 2008
  27. ↑ "The Beggars Opera", production details, Vanishing Point, 2009
  28. ↑ Michael Billington (30 June 2011). "Review – The Beggar's Opera". The Guardian . Archived from the original on 1 January 2017.
  29. ↑ "Dead Dog in a Suitcase (and other love songs) – A new Baggar's Opera", Kneehigh Theatre
  30. ↑ "Minuit Montmartre par Des Voix Sur Les Planches, July 2021, helloasso.com (in French)

Sources

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