Water supply and sanitation in the Republic of Ireland

Last updated

Ireland: Water and Sanitation
Flag of Ireland.svg
Data
Access to an improved water source 100% [1] [ failed verification ]
Access to improved sanitation 99% [1] [ failed verification ]
Average urban water use80 litres/capita/day (2016) [2]
Water receiving secondary treatment94% (2015) [3]
Annual investment in water supply and sanitation€71/capita (2013) [4]
Institutions
National water and sanitation company Irish Water took over responsibility from 34 Local Authorities in 2015
Water and sanitation regulator Commission for Energy Regulation
Responsibility for policy setting Minister for the Environment, Climate and Communications

Water supply and sanitation services in Ireland are governed primarily by the Water Services Acts of 2007 to 2014 and regulated by the Commission for Energy Regulation. Until 2015, the relevant legislation provided for the provision of water and wastewater services by local authorities in Ireland, with domestic usage funded indirectly through central taxation (including motor taxation), and non-domestic usage funded via local authority rates. From 2015, the legislation provided for the setup of a utility company, Irish Water , which would be responsible for providing water and wastewater services, and funded through direct billing. [5] [6] The transition between these models, and certain aspects of operation of the new company, caused controversy in its initial period of operation. [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12]

Contents

In general in Ireland, water resources are abundant and 83% of drinking water comes from surface water. However, wastage levels were estimated at 800 million litres lost to leaks each day in 2015, [13] while usage levels were calculated at 80 litres per capita per day in 2016. [2] The quality of water from the public mains is usually quite high, with, for example, 98.9% of public water supplies complying with the standards for E. coli levels in 2004. [14] However, the microbiological quality of some rural private group water schemes led to Ireland being cited in 2002 by the European Court of Justice for failing to abide by EU drinking water guidelines. [15]

For wastewater treatment, 94% of wastewater collected in urban area sewers receives at least secondary treatment, [3] and 1.6 billion litres of water are treated each day nationally. [16] Wastewater infrastructure includes 25,000 km of pipes to approximately 1,000 wastewater treatment plants. [16]

Water resources and use

Water resources are abundant in Ireland, with 82% of drinking water supplies in Ireland sourced from surface water (i.e. rivers and lakes) and 18% coming from groundwater – 10.5% from groundwater and 7.6% from springs. This high dependence on surface water is above the EU average. [17] Approximately 2% of Ireland's water resources are abstracted for human use. Unaccounted-for water constitutes 41% of total water supply, followed by supply for domestic demand (39%), and non-domestic demand (20%). [18]

The River Lee is a source of water supply for the city of Cork Cork river lee.jpg
The River Lee is a source of water supply for the city of Cork

80% of the Irish population is served by centralised water supplies. The remaining 20% is served by 643 public group water schemes (serving 2.3% of the population), 486 private group water schemes (serving 4.7%), 1,429 small private supplies (serving 0.7%) and private wells that are exempt from the regulations (serving 12.3%). [19]

Domestic water use is in line with other European countries, with daily domestic consumption of water per capita at approximately 80 litres in Ireland, [2] compared to 121 litres in Germany and 114 litres in Denmark (all users are metered in the latter two countries). [20] At 141 m3 per inhabitant, Ireland has the third highest freshwater abstraction rate per inhabitant of 26 EU countries, ranked behind only Italy and Croatia. [21]

Water shortages have left some larger urban areas – particularly Dublin – with supply issues during prolonged dry spells. [22] A 2006 feasibility study for the Greater Dublin water supply urged the development of a new water source, pointing out that it would be needed by 2015–2016 to avert water rationing and the curtailment of economic growth.[ citation needed ] It also noted that it would take at least a decade to build the proposed new source, [23] with a 2007 report suggesting a lengthy pipeline to Dublin from Lough Derg and the Shannon. [24]

Water supply service provision

Upper reservoir of Bohernabreena Waterworks, Glenasmole Upper Reservoir, Glenasmole.jpg
Upper reservoir of Bohernabreena Waterworks, Glenasmole

Public (mains) water supply

80% of the population is supplied by centralised public water systems. [19] Public water supply systems and providers are governed by the Water Services Acts of 2007 to 2014. Until 2015, this legislation provided for the provision of water and wastewater services by local authorities, with domestic usage funded through central taxation, and non-domestic usage funded via local authority rates. From 2015, legislation came into force such that a new utility company, Irish Water, became responsible for providing water and wastewater services. The new company was set up as a subsidiary of an existing semi-state corporation, Bord Gáis (Ervia). [25] The newly created company effectively took on the existing local authority employees and water management facilities, pipes and infrastructure. [26] Operationally, Irish Water delegated some work, for example water meter installation and customer support, to sub-contractors. [27] [28] [29]

Group water schemes

20% of the population is supplied by wells, small private supplies and public or private group schemes. [19] Group water schemes are found in rural areas and are outside the scope of the centralised public mains systems. A group scheme is a scheme servicing water or wastewater services to two or more households not connected to the centralised water supply and/or wastewater collection systems. Group schemes are private or public, depending on whether their water is supplied from the public mains or a private source. All group schemes connected to centralised supplies are fitted with a water meter for monitoring the amount of water used by the group.[ citation needed ] The EPA 2011 report on drinking water quality in Ireland indicated that there were 1,129 group water schemes, serving 7% of the public, covered by the Drinking Water Regulations because they serve more than 50 people or supply a commercial operation. 643 are public group schemes and 486 are private group water schemes.[ citation needed ]

The National Federation of Group Water Schemes was established to represent the interests of members of group water schemes, and to provide advisory, training, developmental and other services to scheme members. [30]

Water supply quality

The quality of water from the public mains is usually quite high and compliant with EU drinking water standards. However, 2011 reports noted poor microbiological quality in some rural private group water schemes and groundwater and challenged the authorities then responsible for drinking water. [19] [31]

The city of Galway, supplied with water by the River Corrib, was subject to an outbreak of waterborne cryptosporidiosis in 2007 Galway.jpg
The city of Galway, supplied with water by the River Corrib, was subject to an outbreak of waterborne cryptosporidiosis in 2007

In 2007, there was an outbreak of waterborne cryptosporidiosis in Galway, which caused illness in over 240 people, and led to the imposition of a boil water notice in Galway for a period of 5 months during the peak tourist season. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), while "many have taken the quality of drinking water in Ireland for granted in the past, this can no longer be the case". [32]

On 14 November 2002, authorities in Ireland were cited by the European Court of Justice over the microbiological contamination of hundreds of public and private water supplies. The EU's Drinking Water Directive requires an absence of E. coli in drinking water supplies to protect human health. [15] [33]

The Environmental Protection Agency's 2011 report on drinking water stated that drinking water quality in public water supplies was continuing to improve. At that time, chemical standard compliance stood at 99.5%. 1.3% of supplies were found to have had E.coli, a reduction of 86% since 2005. 10.2% of private group supplies had E.coli, down from 11.6% in 2010. 7.7% of small private supplies were found to have E.coli exceedences, down from 7.4% in 2010. [19]

In October and November 2013, difficulties were encountered with the water supply to Dublin. The Ballymore Eustace water treatment works which processes water from its main supply, the Poulaphouca reservoir, experienced a change in water characteristics. [34] The effect was that particles in the water would not settle, leaving tap water cloudy. As a result, the supply to the Dublin was restricted for two days. [35]

Cryptosporidium contamination risk led to "boil notices" remaining in place in parts of County Roscommon for approximately six-years from 2009 to 2015. [36]

In 2017 there was significant disruption to water supply services in parts of County Meath, County Louth and Drogheda, with 70,000 people without water for some time during July. [37]

Wastewater treatment

The proportion of waste water discharges where secondary treatment facilities have been provided increased significantly from 26% between 1998–1999 to 93% by 2011.[ citation needed ] This was due predominantly to the new wastewater treatment plants at Ringsend (Dublin) (which, at the time, was believed to be the largest construction of a new water treatment facility in Europe serving 1.5million people [38] , Cork City, Limerick City, Galway City and Dundalk.[ citation needed ]

According to a 2011 EPA report, [19] 11 of 174 agglomerations covered by the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive did not have the required level of wastewater treatment, but were expected to have secondary treatment by 2015.[ needs update ][ citation needed ] 70% of agglomerations (larger urban areas in Ireland) were compliant with the requirements of the Directive in 2011, an improvement on 63% compliance in 2010 and 57% in 2009.

As of 2011, while 66% of households were connected to public sewerage schemes, with the majority in urban areas, 27.5% of households used an individual septic tank, and 3% adopted other individual sewerage systems. [39]

In October 2009, the European Court of Justice ruled against Ireland regarding septic tanks and other on-site wastewater treatment systems.[ citation needed ] It deemed Ireland non-compliant with Articles 4 and 8 of the Waste Directive in relation to domestic wastewaters disposed of in the countryside. Ireland was fined €2 million and the court imposed daily fines of €12,000 for each day of delay in achieving compliance. Central to ending the case against Ireland was establishing a national inspection plan for domestic wastewater treatment systems, and in 2012, the government passed the Water Services (Amendment) Act 2012. A new registration and inspection regime was introduced in June 2012, and by July 2013, almost 90% of owners of premises connected with such systems had registered their systems.[ citation needed ]

Regulation

Environmental and quality regulation

Water services authorities were historically responsible for the monitoring of drinking water. Local authorities were responsible for testing the quality of water, in conjunction with the Local Health Office (HSE). Under the 2007 Drinking Water Regulations, the EPA had supervisory powers for public water supplies, and could direct a water services authority to improve the management or quality of a public water supply. Where the EPA found deficiencies, it would make recommendations as to what action the water services authority needed to take to remedy any deficiency. Likewise, water services authorities had a supervisory role in relation to group water schemes and private supplies, and would notify the EPA of drinking water non-compliances or risks to public health from a public water supply. Since the formation of Irish Water, it is legally obliged to "submit all drinking water quality results for compliance testing to the EPA on an annual basis". [40]

Economic regulation

Prior to 2013, there was no economic regulator for water supply and sanitation in Ireland. Under the 2013 Water Services Act and Water Services (Amendment) No. 2 Bill 2013, the Commission for Energy Regulation was assigned powers to advise the Minister for the Environment, Community and Local Government on the development and become the economic regulator of water services.

Financial aspects and efficiency

Tariffs

In 2013, €326 million was allocated by the Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government for infrastructural spending on water, [4] corresponding to €71 per capita.

In July 2014 the Commission for Energy Regulation announced that the standard metered rate for water and wastewater would include 30 m3 per year of free basic water, after which €4.88/m3 including taxes would be charged. Rates were to be capped until March 2015 at an annual fixed rate of €176 plus €102 for every additional adult living in a household. [41]

Prior to the formation of Irish Water, all water charges for domestic use in urban areas in Ireland were paid for by general taxation. Domestic use is defined as drinking, washing, heating and sanitation. There were approximately 1.35 million domestic water connections served by public water supplies. Members of rural group water schemes usually pay for domestic water and wastewater services. As part of a Programme of Assistance agreed with the EC-ECB-IMF 'troika' in November 2010, the Fianna Fáil-Green Party government committed to introducing domestic water charges in 2012/2013. This followed a commitment made in the Renewed Programme for Government, published in October 2009, to introduce charges based on a system of a free allowance per household, with charges on usage above the allowance. One month before the government's agreement with the troika, the administration's 'National Recovery Plan 2010–2014' stated that metering would form part of charges and be introduced by 2014. Domestic water charges, a requirement under the EC-ECB-IMF's Programme of Assistance, were to be introduced in Quarter 4 2014, with households receiving their first bills in Quarter 1 2015. Bills would be issued for usage in arrears, similar to those for electricity or gas.

Households were to receive a free allowance, with charges based on metered usage above the free allowance. Environment Minister Phil Hogan said households unmetered at the time of charges introduction would be charged on an assessed basis (e.g. dwelling type, number of people in a house etc.). [42]

Non-domestic customers pay a combined charge for water and wastewater. Local authorities set the rates. In 2013, the national average water rate stood at €1.13 per m3. The national average wastewater rate was €1.19 per m3. €2.37 per m3 is the average combined rate. Some variation exists in the local authorities' rates, with Kildare County Council having a combined rate of €1.59 per m3, in contrast with €3.04 per m3 charged by Wicklow County Council. The cost of water for industrial users has remained relatively static since 2007. [43]

Investment

Under the EU's Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive 1991, local authorities are obliged to construct secondary and tertiary water treatment plants by 2008. New wastewater treatment plants were built in Dublin, Cork, Limerick and Galway between 2000 and 2011, generating additional capacity equivalent to the needs of a population of 3.96 million. Over the same period, drinking water treatment capacity has been increased by an amount sufficient to meet the needs of a population equivalent of 1.4 million people. The compliance level under the EU Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive increased from 25% to 93%. Under the government's 'Infrastructure and Capital Investment 2012–2016' blueprint, €1.58 billion in capital investment is to be allocated for water services between 2012 and 2016, with €326 million now earmarked for 2013. [4] The majority of the funding will be channelled through the 2010–2013 Water Services Investment Programme, which is targeting reduction in leakage levels; improvements in drinking water standards; capacity and security of supply (including planning a new long-term source for the Greater Dublin Area) and wastewater discharges. Infrastructure under the Greater Dublin Strategic Drainage Strategy is also promised.

Financing and Subsidies

Funding for maintaining and improving the water supply and sanitation infrastructure comes from the Department of Environment, Community and Local Government. [30] Indirectly, substantial funding historically came from the European Union through its European Regional Development Fund. In addition, local authorities levy planning contributions mainly for small capital improvements. Group scheme members are entitled to a subsidy from their local authority. After the abolition of domestic water charges in 1997, it was intended that this scheme would extend those benefits to households supplied by group water schemes. The amount of subsidy is 100% of the qualifying expenditure, meaning that all running costs of the scheme are covered by the subsidy as long as they do not exceed the subsidy limit. The amount is around €50 per house per year. Group water schemes are also entitled to technical and grant assistance for any upgrading works that may need to be carried out.

Efficiency and levels of water leakage

Leakage levels in Ireland currently stand at 41%, with considerable variation between local authorities, in part explained by corrosion of antiquated pipes. As part of the National Water Study, conducted in 2000, a water audit was undertaken for 91 water schemes outside Dublin to establish levels of non-revenue water (NRW). The report noted that the poor quality of data and the low level of consumer metering limited the reliability of their figures. They found an average level of NRW of 47%, corresponding to 34 litres/connection/hour and 29 m3/km/day. [44] This compares to only 10.1 m3/km/day in England, Scotland 21.3 m3/km/day, Netherlands 1.6 m3/km/day and Denmark 1.7 m3/km/day. [45]

Development of water charges

First abolition of domestic water charges (1970s)

Domestic rates, which financed the cost of water services, were abolished for the first time by a Fianna Fáil government following the 1977 general election. In the same period, an increase took place in Income Tax and Value Added Tax. The revenue from these increases, and from borrowing (which was high during the late 1970s and early 1980s), was used to fund the local authorities. These had previously relied on domestic rates for their funding, but from this time the central government paid a "rate support grant" to local authorities. [46]

However, in 1983 the then Fine Gael-Labour government decided to cut this grant and passed legislation to allow councils to levy service charges. This was perceived by some as "double taxation", since the previously increased taxes remained at their high levels. Opponents also argued that rates were unrelated to consumption and that there were insufficient provisions to protect the poor.[ citation needed ]

Dublin fight against water charges (1994–1997)

A number of councils decided to introduce water charges, while others such as Dublin initially decided against introducing them. After water charges were introduced in Dublin in 1994, an anti-water charges campaign was initiated and included demonstrations and a boycott of the new charges. [47] The city threatened to cut the water supply to those who did not pay. After lengthy court battles, some non-paying users were cut off, but the non-payment of water charges continued. [46] On 19 December 1996, on the eve of general elections, the Minister for the Environment Brendan Howlin from the Labour Party of the Rainbow Government of Fine Gael–Labour Party–Democratic Left announced that the water charge was going to be replaced by a new system in which motor tax collected in each area would be the source for local council funding.

Second abolition of domestic water charges (1990s)

Domestic water charges in Ireland were thus prohibited under the Local Government (Financial Provisions) Act 1997, passed in May 1997 shortly before the June 1997 general elections in which Fine Gael lost to Fianna Fáil under Bertie Ahern. However, because of popular discontent, the new government chose not to pursue domestic water charges. [48] Instead, it embarked on consultations which resulted in the 1998 Water Services Pricing Policy. This policy banned cross-subsidy of domestic services from non-domestic charges. For non-domestic users, the policy required the recovery of average operational and marginal capital costs of water services from these users. It also foresaw the metering of all non-domestic users by 2006. Domestic operational costs were to be paid for through a local government fund, and capital costs were to be financed through the capital programme of the Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government. [49]

Water Services Bill 2003

The Water Services Bill 2003 was presented to the Oireachtas by then Environment Minister, Martin Cullen of Fianna Fáil. The bill was designed to consolidate Ireland's existing body of 15 different enactments into a single act, and to transpose EU water legislation. Cullen called it "the first root and branch consolidation and modernisation of water services law for more than 120 years since the Public Health (Ireland) Act 1878", adding that "like the Victorian sewers which we have upgraded or replaced, this Bill replaces Victorian legislation with a new modern legal framework." [50]

In September 2004 Cullen's successor, Environment Minister Dick Roche, also of Fianna Fáil, defended the proposed bill in Dáil Éireann. There he was faced with charges that the bill was a "Trojan horse to introduce privatisation and domestic water charges". The opposition also criticised the lack of a statutory right of access to water in the bill, lack of public participation in the review of proposed strategic plans, calling the bill "a thinly disguised attempt to privatise the water supply" as well as "a formula to get around the 1997 Act and re-introduce water charges by another name." [51] Ultimately, the bill was not passed.

According to an unattributed opinion piece in the Irish Times, if the Water Services Bill, 2003, had been passed earlier and implemented effectively, people would not have had to boil their drinking water in Galway in 2007 because of an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis. [52]

Water Services Act 2007

In May 2007, the Fianna Fáil-Progressive Democrats coalition enacted the Water Services Act 2007. As well as updating and consolidating existing legislation, the Act introduced a system to regulate group water schemes, assigned the EPA with supervisory responsibilities, and placed duties of care on water services users regarding water conservation.[ citation needed ]

Fianna Fáil-Green Party government policy (2007–2011)

In 2008, the Minister for the Environment, John Gormley, Green Party leader and former Lord Mayor of Dublin from 1994 to 1995 during the water charges conflict, said that domestic water charges would not be introduced during the lifetime of the government. He also said water shortages would be a key issue that Ireland would have to grapple with in the future. The Minister said there were other ways of tackling potential shortages which have already left some larger urban areas – particularly Dublin – struggling to meet demand during prolonged dry spells. The main focus of government policy would be to reduce the leakages from main water supply pipes. [53]

In October 2009, however, Fianna Fáil and the Green Party agreed on a Renewed Programme for Government, which pledged to introduce domestic water charges based on a system of a free allowance per household, with charges only on usage in excess of the allowance. In October 2010, the administration's 'National Recovery Plan 2010–2014' pledged that metering would form part of charges. Metering was to be introduced by 2014. As part of the EC-ECB-IMF Programme of Assistance to Ireland, agreed in November 2010, the Coalition agreed to the introduction of domestic water charges in 2012/2013.

Fine Gael-Labour government policy (2011-2015)

In March 2011, the new Fine Gael-Labour government's Programme for Government (2011–2016) contained commitments to a water policy similar to the previous government. [54]

In January 2012, the Minister of Environment, Phil Hogan, announced a six-week consultation on a planned fundamental reform of the water sector. Following that, a metered domestic water charges would be introduced and a new public utility, Irish Water, would be established and take over responsibilities for drinking and waste water services from the local authorities. Independent economic regulation, through the Commission for Energy Regulation, would oversee the new utility's running costs, infrastructural investment plans and the design and level of domestic and non-domestic water charges.

In July 2013, Irish Water was legally established and began a national metering programme. The company was expected to initially install meters for approximately 1.05 million households. Domestic water charges were scheduled to commence in October 2014, with households receiving their first bills in Quarter 1 2015, with bills paid for usage in arrears. Irish Water would hence become the national water services authority, assuming all responsibilities for water services from local authorities - except for those relating to certain rural water services and inspections of wastewater treatment systems. Ireland's 34 local authorities were to continue to provide some drinking and waste water services on behalf of Irish Water through a service level agreement.

Irish Water (2015-present)

From 2015, Irish Water became responsible for providing water and wastewater services, with the intention that the company would be funded through direct billing. The new company was set up as a subsidiary of an existing semi-state corporation, Bord Gáis (Ervia). [25] The newly created company took on the existing local authority employees and water management facilities, pipes and infrastructure. [26] While Irish Water initially issued bills and was funded through payment from residential users, by 2017 the scale of protest and push-back against charges resulted in the suspension and ultimately scrapping of the funding model. [55]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Northern Ireland Water</span> State company operating water services in Northern Ireland

Northern Ireland Water Limited is the main water company in Northern Ireland.

Guyana, meaning "land of many waters", is rich in water resources. Most of the population is concentrated in the coastal plain, much of which is below sea level and is protected by a series of sea walls. A series of shallow reservoirs inland of the coastal plain, called "water conservancies", store surface water primarily for irrigation needs. Key issues in the water and sanitation sector in Guyana are poor service quality, a low level of cost recovery and low levels of access.

Water supply and sanitation in the United States involves a number of issues including water scarcity, pollution, a backlog of investment, concerns about the affordability of water for the poorest, and a rapidly retiring workforce. Increased variability and intensity of rainfall as a result of climate change is expected to produce both more severe droughts and flooding, with potentially serious consequences for water supply and for pollution from combined sewer overflows. Droughts are likely to particularly affect the 66 percent of Americans whose communities depend on surface water. As for drinking water quality, there are concerns about disinfection by-products, lead, perchlorates, PFAS and pharmaceutical substances, but generally drinking water quality in the U.S. is good.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water supply and sanitation in South Africa</span>

Water supply and sanitation in South Africa is characterised by both achievements and challenges. After the end of Apartheid South Africa's newly elected government struggled with the then growing service and backlogs with respect to access to water supply and sanitation developed. The government thus made a strong commitment to high service standards and to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve those standards. Since then, the country has made some progress with regard to improving access to water supply: It reached universal access to an improved water source in urban areas, and in rural areas the share of those with access increased from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water supply and sanitation in Canada</span>

Water supply and sanitation in Canada is nearly universal and generally of good quality, but a lack of clean drinking water in many First Nations communities remains a problem. Water use in Canada is high compared to Europe, since water tariffs are low and 44% of users are not metered.

Water supply and sanitation in Yemen is characterized by many challenges as well as some achievements. A key challenge is severe water scarcity, especially in the Highlands, prompting The Times of London to write "Yemen could become the first nation to run out of water". A second key challenge is a high level of poverty, making it very difficult to recover the costs of service provision. Access to water supply sanitation in Yemen is as low or even lower than that in many sub-Saharan African countries. Yemen is both the poorest country and the most water-scarce country in the Arab world. Third, the capacity of sector institutions to plan, build, operate and maintain infrastructure remains limited. Last but not least the security situation makes it even more difficult to improve or even maintain existing levels of service.

Water supply and sanitation in the Netherlands is provided in good quality and at a reasonable price to the entire population. Water consumption is one of the lowest in developed countries at 128 litres per capita per day and water leakage in the distribution network is one of the lowest in the world at only 6%.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water supply and sanitation in Zambia</span>

Water supply and sanitation in Zambia is characterized by achievements and challenges. Among the achievements are the creation of regional commercial utilities for urban areas to replace fragmented service provision by local governments; the establishment of a regulatory agency that has substantially improved the availability of information on service provision in urban areas; the establishment of a devolution trust fund to focus donor support on poor peri-urban areas; and an increase in the access to water supply in rural areas.

Water supply and sanitation in Israel are intricately linked to the historical development of Israel. Because rain falls only in the winter, and largely in the northern part of the country, irrigation and water engineering are considered vital to the country's economic survival and growth. Large scale projects to desalinate seawater, direct water from rivers and reservoirs in the north, make optimal use of groundwater, and reclaim flood overflow and sewage have been undertaken. Among them is the National Water Carrier, carrying water from the country's biggest freshwater lake, the Sea of Galilee, to the northern part of the Negev desert through channels, pipes and tunnels. Israel's water demand today outstrips available conventional water resources. Thus, in an average year, Israel relies for about half of its water supply on unconventional water resources, including reclaimed water and desalination. A particularly long drought in 1998–2002 had prompted the government to promote large-scale seawater desalination. In 2022, 85% of the country's drinkable water was produced through desalination of saltwater and brackish water.

Public water supply and sanitation in Scotland is characterised by universal access and generally good service quality. Water and sewerage services are provided by a single public company, Scottish Water. The economic water industry regulator is the Water Industry Commission for Scotland. It "promotes the interests of water and sewerage customers in Scotland by making sure that householders and businesses receive a high-quality service and value for money by setting prices, monitoring Scottish Water's performance and facilitating competition in the water industry". The environmental regulator is the Scottish Environment Protection Agency. Drinking water standards and wastewater discharge standards are determined by the EU.

Public water supply and sanitation in England and Wales has been characterised by universal access and generally good service quality. In both England and Wales, water companies became privatised in 1989, although Dwr Cymru operates as a not-for-profit organisation. Whilst independent assessments place the cost of water provision in Wales and England as higher than most major countries in the EU between 1989 and 2005, the government body responsible for water regulation, together with the water companies, have claimed improvements in service quality during that period.

As Australia's supply of freshwater is increasingly vulnerable to droughts, possibly as a result of climate change, there is an emphasis on water conservation and various regions have imposed restrictions on the use of water.

Water supply and sanitation in Jordan is characterized by severe water scarcity, which has been exacerbated by forced immigration as a result of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the Six-Day War in 1967, the Gulf War of 1990, the Iraq War of 2003 and the Syrian Civil War since 2011. Jordan is considered one of the ten most water scarce countries in the world. High population growth, the depletion of groundwater reserves and the impacts of climate change are likely to aggravate the situation in the future.

Drinking water supply and sanitation in Egypt is characterized by both achievements and challenges. Among the achievements are an increase of piped water supply between 1998 and 2006 from 89% to 100% in urban areas and from 39% to 93% in rural areas despite rapid population growth; the elimination of open defecation in rural areas during the same period; and in general a relatively high level of investment in infrastructure. Access to an at least basic water source in Egypt is now practically universal with a rate of 98%. On the institutional side, the regulation and service provision have been separated to some extensions through the creation of a national Holding Company for Water and Wastewater in 2004, and of an economic regulator, the Egyptian Water Regulatory Agency (EWRA), in 2006. , many challenges remain. Only about one half of the population is connected to sanitary sewers. Partly because of low sanitation coverage about 50,000 children die each year because of diarrhea. Another challenge is low cost recovery due to water tariffs that are among the lowest in the world. This in turn requires government subsidies even for operating costs, a situation that has been aggravated by salary increases without tariff increases after the Arab Spring. Poor operation of facilities, such as water and wastewater treatment plants, as well as limited government accountability and transparency, are also issues.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water supply and sanitation in Kenya</span>

Water supply and sanitation in Kenya is characterised by low levels of access to water and sanitation, in particular in urban slums and in rural areas, as well as poor service quality in the form of intermittent water supply. Seasonal and regional water scarcity in Kenya exacerbates the difficulty to improve water supply.

Water supply and sanitation in Japan is characterized by numerous achievements and some challenges. The country has achieved universal access to water supply and sanitation; has one of the lowest levels of water distribution losses in the world; regularly exceeds its own strict standards for the quality of drinking water and treated waste water; uses an effective national system of performance benchmarking for water and sanitation utilities; makes extensive use of both advanced and appropriate technologies such as the jōkasō on-site sanitation system; and has pioneered the payment for ecosystem services before the term was even coined internationally. Some of the challenges are a decreasing population, declining investment, fiscal constraints, ageing facilities, an ageing workforce, a fragmentation of service provision among thousands of municipal utilities, and the vulnerability of parts of the country to droughts that are expected to become more frequent due to climate change.

Water supply and sanitation in Lebanon is characterized by a number of achievements and challenges. The achievements include the reconstruction of infrastructure after the 1975–90 Civil War and the 2006 war with Israel, as well as the reform of the water and sanitation sector through a water law passed in 2000. The law created four Regional Water Establishments to consolidate numerous smaller utilities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water supply and sanitation in New Zealand</span>

Water supply and sanitation in New Zealand is provided for most people by infrastructure owned by territorial authorities including city councils in urban areas and district councils in rural areas. As at 2021, there are 67 different asset-owning organisations.

Water supply and sanitation in Vietnam is characterized by challenges and achievements. Among the achievements is a substantial increase in access to water supply and sanitation between 1990 and 2010, nearly universal metering, and increased investment in wastewater treatment since 2007. Among the challenges are continued widespread water pollution, poor service quality, low access to improved sanitation in rural areas, poor sustainability of rural water systems, insufficient cost recovery for urban sanitation, and the declining availability of foreign grant and soft loan funding as the Vietnamese economy grows and donors shift to loan financing. The government also promotes increased cost recovery through tariff revenues and has created autonomous water utilities at the provincial level, but the policy has had mixed success as tariff levels remain low and some utilities have engaged in activities outside their mandate.

Water supply and sanitation in Georgia is characterized by achievements and challenges. Among the achievements is the improvement of water services in the capital Tbilisi where the water supply is now continuous and of good quality, major improvements in the country's third-largest city Batumi on the Black Sea where the country's first modern wastewater treatment plant now is under operation, as well as a general increase in access to drinking water in the entire country. Water and sewer tariffs remain affordable, with the private water company Georgian Water and Power (GWP) serving the capital being financially viable and profitable, while the public water company serving most of the rest of the country remains financially weak. The improvements were achieved after the Rose Revolution of 2004 when the government decided to reform the sector and to invest in it after many years of neglect.

References

  1. 1 2 Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. "Ireland: estimates on the use of water sources and sanitation facilities (1980 - 2015)". WHO/UNICEF. Retrieved 9 March 2016.
  2. 1 2 3 "Most households only using 250 litres of water per day". Irish Examiner. 12 April 2016. Households are using 50% less water than had been initially predicted [..with..] just over 80 litres per person
  3. 1 2 "Urban Waste Water Treatment". Environmental Protection Agency. 2015. Retrieved 5 August 2017. Approximately 94% of Ireland's urban waste water receives secondary treatment [..according to..] the latest report 'Urban Waste Water Treatment' in 2015
  4. 1 2 3 Government of Ireland, 2011, Infrastructure and Capital Investment 2012–2016: Medium Term Exchequer Framework
  5. ↑ "Water Services Act 2013". Irishstatutebook.ie. 20 March 2013. Retrieved 31 July 2014.
  6. ↑ "Irish Water to be Bord Gais Eireann subsidiary". Business Post. 17 April 2012.
  7. ↑ Alison Comyn (16 July 2014). "Residents' rage after paths are ripped up". The Irish Independent. Retrieved 31 July 2014.
  8. ↑ Andrews, Kernan (24 July 2014). "Healy questions Irish Water letter demanding bank account details". Advertiser.ie. Retrieved 31 July 2014.
  9. ↑ "Data breach investigated after Irish Water discloses bank details". The Irish Times. 21 October 2014.
  10. ↑ "Irish Water: We'll cut controversial bonuses – but only by 4pc". Irish Independent. 30 October 2014.
  11. ↑ "Irish Water spent €50m despite order to use Bord Gais expertise". The Irish Independent. 13 January 2014. Retrieved 31 July 2014.
  12. ↑ "Water protests: From a torrent to a tsunami – the anger that will not subside". Irish Examiner. 3 November 2014.
  13. ↑ "Almost half of Ireland's water supply is lost through leaks". The Irish Times. 13 February 2015.
  14. ↑ "Initiatives To Improve Water Quality In Ireland". Safety of Potable Water in Ireland (Report). Food Safety Authority of Ireland. 2006. p. 23.
  15. 1 2 "Case 316/00 - Drinking water polution [sic]". Friends of the Irish Environment. Archived from the original on 16 August 2011.
  16. 1 2 "Executive summary" (PDF). www.water.ie. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
  17. ↑ Eurostats, water statistics
  18. ↑ Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "The Provision and Quality of Drinking Water in Ireland – A Report for the Year 2011". Environmental Protection Agency. 2012.
  20. ↑ "DANVA:Water in figures. DANVA's Benchmarking and Water Statistics 2010" (PDF). 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 July 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2016.
  21. ↑ Eurostat, water statistics
  22. ↑ "Water charges not on agenda – Gormley, Irish Times, August 26, 2008". The Irish Times. 8 August 2008. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
  23. ↑ "Study predicts Dublin water crisis". RTE News. 22 August 2007. According to Dr John Sweeney from the Irish Climate and Research Unit at NUI Maynooth
  24. ↑ "Water Resources and Management in the Republic of Ireland L. M. McCUMISKEY, BE, MSc, FIEI, MICE*P. F. TONER, PhD, Director and Section Head, respectively, Environmental Research Unit, Dublin, Water and Environment Journal". 6 (1). Wiley (publisher online). 26 July 2007: 89–100. Archived from the original on 13 August 2011.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  25. 1 2 "Irish Water timeline – A chronological look at the utility from setup to Eurostat ruling". Irish Times. 29 July 2015.
  26. 1 2 "Irish Water insists it WILL be reducing local authority staff numbers". TheJournal.ie. 4 January 2015.
  27. ↑ "Mick Wallace: O'Brien buying Siteserv very questionable". Irish Examiner. 10 October 2014.
  28. ↑ "Meter installers ask Irish Water for extra money". RTÉ News. 8 March 2015.
  29. ↑ "Irish Water: Abtran hires 350 temporary staff ahead of billing". Irish Independent. 2 March 2015.
  30. 1 2 "Citizens Information Board:Water supply in Ireland". Citizensinformation.ie. 9 December 2009. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
  31. ↑ "EPA: Irish waters must achieve good water status by 2015". Epa.ie. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
  32. ↑ Environmental Protection Agency, 2008, The Provision and Quality of Drinking Water in Ireland – A Report for the Years 2006–2007, p. 1
  33. ↑ "Angela Long:Ireland rapped over water quality, March 22, 2007". Irishhealth.com. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
  34. ↑ Kelly, Olivia (31 October 2013). "Restrictions due to 'wrong kind of water'". The Irish Times. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
  35. ↑ Kelly, Olivia (2 November 2013). "Dublin water restrictions extended until Thursday". The Irish Times. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
  36. ↑ "Boil water notices lifted in Co Roscommon". RTE.ie. 30 June 2015. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
  37. ↑ "Call for review into Irish Water's handling of water crisis". Independent News & Media. 5 August 2017.
  38. ↑ "Ringsend Wastewater Treatment Plant Project". RMD Kwikform. 2011.
  39. ↑ "Census 2011 Profile 4 The Rood over our Heads – Housing in Ireland". CSO. 2012.
  40. ↑ "Water Quality FAQs". Irish Water. Retrieved 5 August 2017. Each Local Authority [..] take water samples [..] on behalf of Irish Water. All water samples are tested in line with [..] European Union Drinking Water Regulations [..] Irish Water is legally obliged to submit all drinking water quality results [..] to the EPA
  41. ↑ "Ireland outlines first water tariffs since 1997". Global Water Intelligence, August 2014. Retrieved 6 August 2014.
  42. ↑ Irish Times:Water charges 'to raise €1 billion', 17 December 2010
  43. ↑ Forfás, 2012, Ireland's Competitiveness Scorecard 2012
  44. ↑ National Water Study Archived 12 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine , WS Atkins Ireland p. 7
  45. ↑ DANVA, 2010, Water in figures – DANVA's Benchmarking and Water Statistics 2010
  46. 1 2 "1993–1996: The Dublin fight against water charges". Libcom.org. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
  47. ↑ Gross, David M. (2014). 99 Tactics of Successful Tax Resistance Campaigns. Picket Line Press. pp. 23–24, 35–36, 46, 59, 121, 185. ISBN   978-1490572741.
  48. ↑ Susan Scott:Abolition of Domestic Water Charges in Ireland, p. 2
  49. ↑ Speech by Bernard Allen TD Fine Gael Spokesperson on Environment and Local Government on the Water Services Bill 2004 in Dáil Éireann 05.10.04 [ permanent dead link ]
  50. ↑ Environmental Data: Ireland: Water Services Bill 2003 published , 19 December 2003
  51. ↑ Debate on the Proposed Water Services Bill of 2003 Archived 29 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine , Dáil Éireann – Volume 589 – 5 October 2004
  52. ↑ "OPINION - Water Services Bill". Irish Times. 4 April 2007.
  53. ↑ Water charges not on agenda – Gormley, The Irish Times, 26 August 2008
  54. ↑ Government of Ireland, Programme for Government 2011–2016
  55. ↑ "Water charges regime to be officially scrapped today". BreakingNews.ie. 13 April 2017.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.