Thyroid hormone receptor

Last updated
Thyroid hormone receptor alpha
Identifiers
Symbol THRA
Alt. symbolsTHRA1, THRA2, ERBA1
NCBI gene 7067
HGNC 11796
OMIM 190120
RefSeq NM_199334
UniProt P10827
Other data
Locus Chr. 17 q11.2-17q12
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Structures Swiss-model
Domains InterPro
Thyroid hormone receptor beta
Identifiers
Symbol THRB
Alt. symbolsERBA2
NCBI gene 7068
HGNC 11799
OMIM 190160
RefSeq NM_000461
UniProt P10828
Other data
Locus Chr. 3 p24.1-p22
Search for
Structures Swiss-model
Domains InterPro

The thyroid hormone receptor (TR) [1] is a type of nuclear receptor that is activated by binding thyroid hormone. [2] TRs act as transcription factors, ultimately affecting the regulation of gene transcription and translation. These receptors also have non-genomic effects that lead to second messenger activation, and corresponding cellular response. [3]

Contents

Structure

There are four domains that are present in all TRs. [4] Two of these, the DNA-binding (DBD) and hinge domains, are involved in the ability of the receptor to bind hormone response elements (HREs). TRs also have a ligand binding domain (LBD) that allows them to bind to thyroid hormone with high affinity. The fourth domain is a transactivation domain which allows the receptor to bind other transcription factors.

Function

Thyroid hormone receptors play critical roles in the regulation of metabolism, heart rate, and development of organisms. [5] [6] [7]

These receptors are typically associated with retinoic acid receptors (RXR), forming heterodimers. In its inactivated form, the TR inhibits gene transcription by binding corepressors. This adds an additional level of regulation to an already tightly regulated process. When activated, these receptors become associated with other activators and initiate gene transcription. TRs are also involved in cell viability, and are believed to have other non-genomic affects that are currently being investigated. [3]

Mechanism of action

Thyroid hormone is transported into the cell through a transporter. Once inside of the cell, the hormone can have genomic or non-genomic effects. [3] The genomic signaling pathway directly influences gene transcription and translation, while the non-genomic pathway involves more rapid, cellular changes, some of which also regulate gene expression through more indirect signaling. [8]

Genomic signaling pathway

Thyroid hormone receptors regulate gene expression by binding to hormone response elements (HREs) in DNA either as monomers, heterodimers with other nuclear receptors, or homodimers. [4] Dimerizing with different nuclear receptors leads to the regulation of different genes. THR commonly interacts with the retinoid X receptor (RXR), a nuclear retinoic acid receptor. [9] TR/RXR heterodimers are the most transcriptionally active form of TR. [10]

Retinoic acid receptors

Retinoic acid receptors are located in the nucleus and commonly form complexes with steroid hormone receptors in order to regulate the production of essential gene products. [9] Retinoic acid receptors bind corepressors in the absence of their ligand, retinoic acid, which is formed from the metabolism of vitamin A. Retinoid X receptors are activated by binding to 9-cis-retinoic acid, a specific isomer of retinoic acid. Other retinoic acid receptors are less specific, allowing them to bind isomers of retinoic acid with similar affinities.

Once RXRs bind ligand, they undergo conformational changes that reduce their affinity for corepressors—allowing them to attract coactivators to the transcription site. Once all of the necessary cofactors are present, the presence of a DNA binding domain permits the binding of response elements, initiating gene transcription. Due to their role in gene regulation, studies have shown that these receptors are necessary for growth and development.

Regulation of TRE gene products

In the absence of hormone, TR forms a complex with corepressor proteins such as nuclear receptor co-repressor 1 (N-CoR) and 2 (N-CoR2). [4] While these cofactors are present, TR binds HREs in a transcriptionally inactive state. [3] This inhibition of gene transcription allows for tight regulation of gene products. Binding of thyroid hormone results in a conformational change in helix 12 of the TR transactivation domain, which displaces the corepressors from the receptor/DNA complex. [4] Coactivator proteins are recruited, forming a DNA/TR/coactivator complex. One coactivator recruited to the site is nuclear receptor co-activator 1 (NCoA-1). RNA polymerase is recruited to the site and transcribes downstream DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA generated is then translated into the corresponding proteins. The protein products from this process drive the changes in cell function observed in the presence of thyroid hormone.

Non-genomic signaling pathway

Examples of Thyroid Hormone Genomic and Non-Genomic Pathways Thyroid Hormone Pathways.png
Examples of Thyroid Hormone Genomic and Non-Genomic Pathways

Non-genomic effects are faster than genomic effects because they do not require transcription and translation—two very precise and time-consuming processes. [11] Initially most scientists presumed that non-genomic effects were mediated by non-nuclear receptors, but now there is growing evidence for non-genomic effects mediated in the cytoplasm by the traditional nuclear receptors. [12] For example, TR-α1 (a specific isoform of TR) has been linked to cell viability, [3] which is hypothesized to involve a rise in cGMP concentration (through an unknown mechanism) and the corresponding activation of protein kinase G.[ citation needed ]

Other non-genomic effects that have been observed include the regulation of mitochondrial metabolism, stimulation of glucose uptake, altering cytoskeleton organization, regulating ion pump concentrations at the membrane, and the regulation of osteogenesis. [11] Unfortunately, no specific molecular mechanisms have been provided for these nongenomic signaling pathways, so testing the relative importance of genomic and nongenomic signaling by the nuclear receptors using specific mutations that selectively eliminate one action or the other was not carried out. In contrast, more recently, a specific molecular mechanism for TR-β signaling through the PI3 kinase has been identified, [13] which allowed scientists to obtain direct genetic evidence for the involvement of TR-β signaling through the PI3 kinase in brain development [13] and metabolism, [14] two of the primary physiological effects of thyroid hormone action.

Isoforms

There are two main classes of the thyroid hormone receptor, alpha and beta. [3] The localization of these subtypes, summarized in Table 1, is largely dependent upon post-transcriptional splicing. Genes on chromosomes 3 and 17 are transcribed and translated into c-erbA gene products. Splicing of these gene products leads to the production of different isoforms. There are three TR-α receptor splice variants encoded by the THRA (thyroid hormone receptor alpha) gene and three TR-β isoform splice variants encoded by the THRB (thyroid hormone receptor beta) gene. [4] Of these variants, thyroxine is only able to bind to four of them: TR-α1, TR-β1, TR-β2, and TR-β3. [4]

Table 1. THR Isoform Types and Expression [3]
IsoformCommon Location of Expression
TR-α1widely expressed; high expression in cardiac and skeletal muscles, brown fat, and bone
TR-α2widely expressed; high expression in skeletal muscles, brain, and kidney
TR-α3widely expressed; high expression in skeletal muscle, brain, and kidney
TR-β1widely expressed; predominately in brain, liver, and kidney
TR-β2primarily in the retina, hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and cochlea
TR-β3N/A

Disease linkage

Certain mutations in the thyroid hormone receptor are associated with thyroid hormone resistance. [15] The clinical diagnosis of thyroid hormone resistance syndrome (THRS) depends on the location of the resistance, which can be localized to the pituitary gland, peripheral tissues, or both. [16] Patients who present with resistance in both tissue types are diagnosed with global resistance to thyroid hormone. Mutations to both TR genes have been observed clinically, however, THRB gene mutations are much more common.

THRB gene mutation

TR-β resistance is an autosomal dominant disease. [4] This means only one copy of the mutated gene on chromosome 3 needs to be inherited in order for an individual to present with this condition. THRB mutation directly affects the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis. In a healthy individual, the TR-β2 expressed in the pituitary gland plays a major role in regulating thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels through negative feedback. TSH stimulates the thyroid to secrete thyroid hormone. Once secreted, thyroid hormone acts on these receptors and inhibits transcription of Tshb. This feedback inhibition stops further TSH production, inhibiting thyroid hormone secretion downstream. When the THRB gene is mutated, the receptors on the pituitary can no longer bind thyroid hormone. Due to this, TSH production and secretion is not regulated to the same degree and the thyroid continues to be stimulated. The elimination of the negative feedback loop results in the heightened levels of thyroid hormone presented by patients with this condition.

THRA gene mutation

The THRA gene is located on chromosome 17. [4] Not as much information is known about mutations to this gene because it is far less common than mutations to THRB.[ citation needed ] Unlike THRB mutations, THRA mutations do not disrupt the HPT axis. This can make TR-α resistance more difficult to diagnose because patients do not typically present with elevations in thyroid hormone concentration. Due to the high TR-α1 expression in the heart, the cardiovascular system is highly affected by this condition. Additionally, thyroid hormone plays an important role in bone development. Thus, patients with this condition have consistently presented with short stature.

Symptoms

Symptoms of thyroid hormone resistance syndrome can be similar to those seen in hypothyroidism. [4] Hypothyroidism is a disease in which the thyroid does not produce enough thyroid hormone. Patients with this condition have also presented with symptoms similar to hyperthyroidism. In contrast to hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism is a disease in which the thyroid produces too much thyroid hormone. Due to the large array of potential symptoms, this condition can be misleading and is often difficult for medical professionals to diagnose.

Common symptoms of TR mutation include:

Treatment

Treating patients with hypothyroidism caused by the absence of functional TRs is difficult. [16] Treatments prescribed to patients with thyroid hormone resistance largely depend on the symptoms they present and the type of resistance they have.

For those whose conditions mimic hypothyroidism, prescribing normal thyroid hormone doses may not remedy the symptoms they are experiencing. In order for a ligand to have an effect, it must be able to bind to a receptor. Individuals with a THRB or THRA mutation have less receptors that are able to bind ligand, and a corresponding drop in tissue responsiveness to thyroid hormone. For this reason, physicians may prescribe higher doses of the hormone to increase the probability that the ligand will reach a TR that is functional.

Prescribing thyroid hormone in any dose to patients presenting with symptoms mimicking hyperthyroidism does not improve the condition. For these individuals, beta-blockers can be prescribed to treat the increased sympathetic activation they experience. [17] Beta-blockers are competitive inhibitors of adrenaline, the post-ganglionic neurotransmitter released by cells of the sympathetic nervous system. By blocking the ability of receptors to bind adrenaline, beta-blockers have been observed to alleviate symptoms of anxiety, increased blood pressure, and irregular heartbeat, amongst others. Anti-anxiety medications can also be prescribed to individuals with this conditions to treat symptoms of anxiety.

Related Research Articles

A hormone receptor is a receptor molecule that binds to a specific hormone. Hormone receptors are a wide family of proteins made up of receptors for thyroid and steroid hormones, retinoids and Vitamin D, and a variety of other receptors for various ligands, such as fatty acids and prostaglandins. Hormone receptors are of mainly two classes. Receptors for peptide hormones tend to be cell surface receptors built into the plasma membrane of cells and are thus referred to as trans membrane receptors. An example of this is Actrapid. Receptors for steroid hormones are usually found within the protoplasm and are referred to as intracellular or nuclear receptors, such as testosterone. Upon hormone binding, the receptor can initiate multiple signaling pathways, which ultimately leads to changes in the behavior of the target cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor</span> Group of nuclear receptor proteins

In the field of molecular biology, the peroxisome proliferator–activated receptors (PPARs) are a group of nuclear receptor proteins that function as transcription factors regulating the expression of genes. PPARs play essential roles in the regulation of cellular differentiation, development, and metabolism, and tumorigenesis of higher organisms.

Steroid hormone receptors are found in the nucleus, cytosol, and also on the plasma membrane of target cells. They are generally intracellular receptors and initiate signal transduction for steroid hormones which lead to changes in gene expression over a time period of hours to days. The best studied steroid hormone receptors are members of the nuclear receptor subfamily 3 (NR3) that include receptors for estrogen and 3-ketosteroids. In addition to nuclear receptors, several G protein-coupled receptors and ion channels act as cell surface receptors for certain steroid hormones.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Estrogen receptor</span> Proteins activated by the hormone estrogen

Estrogen receptors (ERs) are a group of proteins found inside cells. They are receptors that are activated by the hormone estrogen (17β-estradiol). Two classes of ER exist: nuclear estrogen receptors, which are members of the nuclear receptor family of intracellular receptors, and membrane estrogen receptors (mERs), which are mostly G protein-coupled receptors. This article refers to the former (ER).

The retinoic acid receptor (RAR) is a type of nuclear receptor which can also act as a ligand-activated transcription factor that is activated by both all-trans retinoic acid and 9-cis retinoic acid, retinoid active derivatives of Vitamin A. They are typically found within the nucleus. There are three retinoic acid receptors (RAR), RAR-alpha, RAR-beta, and RAR-gamma, encoded by the RARA, RARB, RARG genes, respectively. Within each RAR subtype there are various isoforms differing in their N-terminal region A. Multiple splice variants have been identified in human RARs: four for RARA, five for RARB, and two for RARG. As with other type II nuclear receptors, RAR heterodimerizes with RXR and in the absence of ligand, the RAR/RXR dimer binds to hormone response elements known as retinoic acid response elements (RAREs) complexed with corepressor protein. Binding of agonist ligands to RAR results in dissociation of corepressor and recruitment of coactivator protein that, in turn, promotes transcription of the downstream target gene into mRNA and eventually protein. In addition, the expression of RAR genes is under epigenetic regulation by promoter methylation. Both the length and magnitude of the retinoid response is dependent of the degradation of RARs and RXRs through the ubiquitin-proteasome. This degradation can lead to elongation of the DNA transcription through disruption of the initiation complex or to end the response to facilitate further transcriptional programs. Due to RAR/RXR heterodimers acting as subtrates to the non steroid hormone ligand retinoid they are extensively involved in cell differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis.

The retinoid X receptor (RXR) is a type of nuclear receptor that is activated by 9-cis retinoic acid, which is discussed controversially to be of endogenous relevance, and 9-cis-13,14-dihydroretinoic acid, which is likely to be the major endogenous mammalian RXR-selective agonist.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear receptor</span> Protein

In the field of molecular biology, nuclear receptors are a class of proteins responsible for sensing steroids, thyroid hormones, vitamins, and certain other molecules. These intracellular receptors work with other proteins to regulate the expression of specific genes thereby controlling the development, homeostasis, and metabolism of the organism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear receptor co-repressor 1</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

The nuclear receptor co-repressor 1 also known as thyroid-hormone- and retinoic-acid-receptor-associated co-repressor 1 (TRAC-1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NCOR1 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear receptor co-repressor 2</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

The nuclear receptor co-repressor 2 (NCOR2) is a transcriptional coregulatory protein that contains several nuclear receptor-interacting domains. In addition, NCOR2 appears to recruit histone deacetylases to DNA promoter regions. Hence NCOR2 assists nuclear receptors in the down regulation of target gene expression. NCOR2 is also referred to as a silencing mediator for retinoid or thyroid-hormone receptors (SMRT) or T3 receptor-associating cofactor 1 (TRAC-1).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corepressor</span> Molecule that represses the expression of genes

In genetics and molecular biology, a corepressor is a molecule that represses the expression of genes. In prokaryotes, corepressors are small molecules whereas in eukaryotes, corepressors are proteins. A corepressor does not directly bind to DNA, but instead indirectly regulates gene expression by binding to repressors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rev-ErbA alpha</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Rev-Erb alpha (Rev-Erbɑ), also known as nuclear receptor subfamily 1 group D member 1 (NR1D1), is one of two Rev-Erb proteins in the nuclear receptor (NR) family of intracellular transcription factors. In humans, REV-ERBɑ is encoded by the NR1D1 gene, which is highly conserved across animal species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rev-ErbA beta</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Rev-Erb beta (Rev-Erbβ), also known as nuclear receptor subfamily 1 group D member 2 (NR1D2), is a member of the Rev-Erb protein family. Rev-Erbβ, like Rev-Erbα, belongs to the nuclear receptor superfamily of transcription factors and can modulate gene expression through binding to gene promoters. Together with Rev-Erbα, Rev-Erbβ functions as a major regulator of the circadian clock. These two proteins are partially redundant. Current research suggests that Rev-Erbβ is less important in maintaining the circadian clock than Rev-Erbα; knock-out studies of Rev-Erbα result in significant circadian disruption but the same has not been found with Rev-Erbβ. Rev-Erbβ compensation for Rev-Erbα varies across tissues, and further research is needed to elucidate the separate role of Rev-Erbβ.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Retinoid X receptor alpha</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Retinoid X receptor alpha (RXR-alpha), also known as NR2B1 is a nuclear receptor that in humans is encoded by the RXRA gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Retinoic acid receptor alpha</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Retinoic acid receptor alpha (RAR-α), also known as NR1B1 is a nuclear receptor that in humans is encoded by the RARA gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Retinoid X receptor beta</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Retinoid X receptor beta (RXR-beta), also known as NR2B2 is a nuclear receptor that in humans is encoded by the RXRB gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">COUP-TFI</span> Protein found in humans

COUP-TF1 also known as NR2F1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NR2F1 gene. This protein is a member of nuclear hormone receptor family of steroid hormone receptors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thyroid hormone receptor alpha</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Thyroid hormone receptor alpha (TR-alpha) also known as nuclear receptor subfamily 1, group A, member 1 (NR1A1), is a nuclear receptor protein that in humans is encoded by the THRA gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thyroid hormone receptor beta</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Thyroid hormone receptor beta (TR-beta) also known as nuclear receptor subfamily 1, group A, member 2 (NR1A2), is a nuclear receptor protein that in humans is encoded by the THRB gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Retinoic acid receptor gamma</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Retinoic acid receptor gamma (RAR-γ), also known as NR1B3 is a nuclear receptor encoded by the RARG gene. Adapalene selectively targets retinoic acid receptor beta and retinoic acid receptor gamma and its agonism of the gamma subtype is largely responsible for adapalene's observed effects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Liver X receptor beta</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Liver X receptor beta (LXR-β) is a member of the nuclear receptor family of transcription factors. LXR-β is encoded by the NR1H2 gene.

References

  1. ↑ Spurr NK, Solomon E, Jansson M, Sheer D, Goodfellow PN, Bodmer WF, Vennstrom B (January 1984). "Chromosomal localisation of the human homologues to the oncogenes erbA and B". The EMBO Journal. 3 (1): 159–63. doi:10.1002/j.1460-2075.1984.tb01777.x. PMC   557313 . PMID   6323162.
  2. ↑ Flamant F, Baxter JD, Forrest D, Refetoff S, Samuels H, Scanlan TS, et al. (December 2006). "International Union of Pharmacology. LIX. The pharmacology and classification of the nuclear receptor superfamily: thyroid hormone receptors". Pharmacological Reviews. 58 (4): 705–11. doi:10.1124/pr.58.4.3. PMID   17132849. S2CID   20478309.
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  5. ↑ Yen PM (July 2001). "Physiological and molecular basis of thyroid hormone action". Physiological Reviews. 81 (3): 1097–142. doi:10.1152/physrev.2001.81.3.1097. PMID   11427693.
  6. ↑ Harvey CB, Williams GR (June 2002). "Mechanism of thyroid hormone action". Thyroid. 12 (6): 441–6. doi:10.1089/105072502760143791. PMID   12165104.
  7. ↑ Brent GA (January 2000). "Tissue-specific actions of thyroid hormone: insights from animal models". Reviews in Endocrine & Metabolic Disorders. 1 (1–2): 27–33. doi:10.1023/A:1010056202122. PMID   11704989. S2CID   33495983.
  8. ↑ Moeller LC, Broecker-Preuss M (August 2011). "Transcriptional regulation by nonclassical action of thyroid hormone". Thyroid Research. 4 (Suppl 1): S6. doi: 10.1186/1756-6614-4-S1-S6 . PMC   3155112 . PMID   21835053.
  9. 1 2 Benbrook D, Chambon P, Rochette-Egly C, Asson-Batres MA (2014). Asson-Batres MA, Rochette-Egly C (eds.). The Biochemistry of Retinoic Acid Receptors I: Structure, Activation, and Function at the Molecular Level. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 1–20. ISBN   978-94-017-9049-9.
  10. 1 2 Kliewer SA, Umesono K, Mangelsdorf DJ, Evans RM (January 1992). "Retinoid X receptor interacts with nuclear receptors in retinoic acid, thyroid hormone and vitamin D3 signalling". Nature. 355 (6359): 446–9. Bibcode:1992Natur.355..446K. doi:10.1038/355446a0. PMC   6159885 . PMID   1310351.
  11. 1 2 Davis PJ, Goglia F, Leonard JL (February 2016). "Nongenomic actions of thyroid hormone". Nature Reviews. Endocrinology. 12 (2): 111–21. doi:10.1038/nrendo.2015.205. PMID   26668118. S2CID   24504890.
  12. ↑ Gauthier K, Flamant F (September 2014). "Nongenomic, TRβ-dependent, thyroid hormone response gets genetic support". Endocrinology. 155 (9): 3206–9. doi: 10.1210/en.2014-1597 . PMID   25152174.
  13. 1 2 Martin NP, Marron Fernandez de Velasco E, Mizuno F, Scappini EL, Gloss B, Erxleben C, et al. (September 2014). "A rapid cytoplasmic mechanism for PI3 kinase regulation by the nuclear thyroid hormone receptor, TRβ, and genetic evidence for its role in the maturation of mouse hippocampal synapses in vivo". Endocrinology. 155 (9): 3713–24. doi:10.1210/en.2013-2058. PMC   4138568 . PMID   24932806.
  14. ↑ Hönes GS, Rakov H, Logan J, Liao XH, Werbenko E, Pollard AS, et al. (December 2017). "Noncanonical thyroid hormone signaling mediates cardiometabolic effects in vivo". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 114 (52): E11323–E11332. Bibcode:2017PNAS..11411323H. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1706801115 . PMC   5748168 . PMID   29229863.
  15. ↑ Olateju TO, Vanderpump MP (November 2006). "Thyroid hormone resistance". Annals of Clinical Biochemistry. 43 (Pt 6): 431–40. doi:10.1258/000456306778904678. PMID   17132274. S2CID   21555314.
  16. 1 2 Guo QH, Wang BA, Wang CZ, Wang M, Lu JM, Lv ZH, Mu YM (August 2016). "Thyroid hormone resistance syndrome caused by heterozygous A317T mutation in thyroid hormone receptor β gene: Report of one Chinese pedigree and review of the literature". Medicine. 95 (33): e4415. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000004415. PMC   5370793 . PMID   27537566.
  17. ↑ Rivas AM, Lado-Abeal J (April 2016). "Thyroid hormone resistance and its management". Proceedings. 29 (2): 209–11. doi:10.1080/08998280.2016.11929421. PMC   4790576 . PMID   27034574.
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