2008–2009 Kenya drought

Last updated

2008–2009 Kenya drought
LocationKenya.png
Location of Kenya
Country Kenyan , Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Uganda, Djibouti [1]
Location East Africa
Period2008, 2009, early 2010
Theory severe drought, irregular rainfall
Effect on demographics11 million people affected

9

Between 2008 and early 2010, [[Kenya], one of the countries of Eastern Africa, was affected by a severe drought, which put ten million people at risk of hunger and caused a large number of deaths to livestock in Kenyan Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs), constituting around 88% of the country. [2] [3]

Contents

The areas which experienced the worst effects were Northern Kenya, Somalia and Southern Ethiopia, most severely in Kajiado and Laikipia. These predominantly pastoral regions reported deaths of up to half of the livestock. [2] Droughts in Kenya have become more frequent causing crop failures and devastation as three-quarters of the population are sustained by agriculture. [3]

== Background ==was the worst drought

Transporting water in arid areas of Kenya Transporting Water Kenyan Arid Areas.jpg
Transporting water in arid areas of Kenya

Owing to the lack of annual rainfall, the arid and semi-arid lands of Kenya (ASALs) are very susceptible to drought and flooding. These lands are impacted by the increasing effects of climate change and the risk of desertification. Water scarcity leaves unimproved water supplies for the majority of the population, so these places tend to be marginalized, and have high rates of poverty. [4]

Kenya experienced limited rainfall in 2008 from October to December, followed by a similar situation in 2009. The Kenyan Red Cross conducted assessment reports indicating the risk of starvation for millions of Kenyans, resulting in an appeal to the international donor community for food aid. [5]

Kenya has been supported by a drought management system since 1980. The system includes policies and strategies, an early warning system, a funded contingency plan, and overall drought coordination and response structure. [6] Despite that, at the end of the 2008–2009 drought, the European Union delegation considered that a review of the responses to this drought would have been appropriate, in order to strengthen the efficiency of the drought management and alleviate its consequences. The system became the responsibility of the National Drought Management Authority, established in 2011. [2]

Effects

Food security

Mothers improving food security in Kenya Mothers grow together to improve food security in Kenya (6220171204).jpg
Mothers improving food security in Kenya

Agriculture supports around 75% of the Kenyan population and accounts for 25.9% of the GDP, making it one of the leading means of sustenance of the country and a significant contributor to employment and food security; on the other hand, droughts caused by climate change have put a strain on agriculture and the country itself to the extent that in January 2009 the Government declared a state of emergency, because ten million Kenyans needed food aid after a poor harvest. [3]

In the North of the country, by April, 30% of the population was suffering from acute malnutrition because the "long rains" of 2009 failed, and some areas of the country were already worn out by five years of consecutive droughts. [3]

The shortage of food was also worsened by a political crisis caused by a disputed election in early 2008. This provoked a climate of violence in the East of the country which drove away farmers who were unable to return in time to plant maize in the planting season. This led to food, water, and power shortages throughout the country. [3]

In 2011 the USAID youth program, which works closely with Feed the Future, brought groups of young mothers together to improve food security, working on nutrition. Cultivating vegetables and legumes they have been improving their health and that of their infants, in a shared urban farm in Mombasa. Making sure that children are well-fed is eminent as malnutrition in childhood and pregnancy has many adverse consequences for child survival and long-term well-being. Food-borne illnesses are often caused by bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens that affect human health. Food security issues were also created by violations in trade standards, resulting in the exclusion of food from international, regional, and local markets. [7]

Effects on the Maasai pastoralists

In Kenya, pastoralism represents a mainstay source of sustenance, providing livelihood, security, and employment opportunities (around 90% of the population). It is impacted by droughts, that directly impact livestock assets of pastoral households.[ citation needed ]

Maasai pastoralists are traditionally semi-nomad and practice seasonal transhumance from dry to wet season pastures. The severe drought of 2009 has prompted pastoralists in Northern Kenya to abandon their traditional lifestyles (like in the 2005 drought) due to the harsh living conditions and the destruction of their pastures by drought, overgrazing, and soil erosion. In conditions of extreme drought, some pastoralists tried to dig down into dry riverbeds and water pans looking for water[ citation needed ] and others moved onto highland pastures in Mt. Kenya. These responses were eventually unsuccessful due to the increasing number of livestock deaths (it is estimated that over 38,000 cattle died).[ citation needed ] The high number of losses also constituted a social implication for the Maasai, who as a tradition measure their wealth on the dimension of their herds. [8] Due to the high mortality rate at the time, there was a major decline in livestock. This raised the prices of milk and other livestock items, which adversely affected hunger levels and lowered income levels. Land degradation also increased due to livestock competition from pastures and water. [9]

To cope with the drought in the short term the Maasai developed four strategies. The first was to take their animals to graze very early in the morning when the grass is covered with dew. The second was to guard reserve pastures on their higher lands while the grass regenerated so that it can be used during drought. The third strategy was to increase the length of their migrations as the gravity of the drought worsened. The last method was to dig shallow wells in dry riverbeds during migrations to acquire water.[ citation needed ]

Two long-term solutions were developed. The first was to keep livestock of mixed-species; in addition to the traditional herd composed by grazers (cattle and sheep) and browsers (goats), pastoralists added donkeys and camels. Different animal species adapt differently to drought and this method ensured that at least part of the herd survived in a specific climatic event.[ citation needed ] The second method was to increase the size of their herds during wetter periods, so they have some animals left at the end of a drought period. [8]

Micro-climate

Koppen-Geiger climate classification map for Kenya 1980-2016 Koppen-Geiger Map KEN present.svg
Köppen–Geiger climate classification map for Kenya 1980–2016

Climate change has been playing an important role in Kenya's droughts, reducing the drought cycle from every ten years to annual events. When the cycle of droughts in Kenya occurred every ten years, farmers had recovery time to rebuild their livestock and crops before the next drought. [5] When the recovery time dropped to two years, this recovery was no longer possible. [10]

Dryness is not the only outcome of climate change: rains have decreased during the long rainy season (from March to May), but have registered an increase from September to February causing an extension of the normal rainfall period (October to December), which, together with growing intensity and strength, has created vulnerability to floods. [11]

The table below displays data of the average monthly rainfall of Kenya from 1901 to 2016, compared with the predicted changes for 2080–2099. [12]

Rainfall Data Projection
Rainfall (mm)JanuaryFebruaryMarchAprilMayJuneJulyAugustSeptemberOctoberNovemberDecember
1901–201629.8026.4561.06129.8391.6937.0420.7130.8828.5357.1393.6951.81
2080–209945.2436.4972.73134.4492.6838.1229.4731.3432.8667.70126.3286.73
Koppen-Geiger climate classification map for Kenya, forecast 2071-2100 Koppen-Geiger Map KEN future.svg
Köppen–Geiger climate classification map for Kenya, forecast 2071–2100

It is expected that the annual average temperature of the territory of Kenya will increase by 1.0 °C to 2.8 °C by 2060, [12] with greater effects in the tea production, but a negative impact on crop and maize revenues. [13]

Data showing the actual and predicted mean annual temperature increase is shown for the period 1901 to 2099:

Temperature Data Projection
Temperature (°C)JanuaryFebruaryMarchAprilMayJuneJulyAugustSeptemberOctoberNovemberDecember
1901–201624.6825.5125.8725.1724.3023.2322.6022.9723.7924.6524.4124.31
2080–209927.7728.8729.2528.8527.8026.8826.2426.6327.3427.9327.6227.51

The Rift Valley Province is particularly sensitive to climate change. It is predicted that coastal areas will suffer from rising sea levels from which floods and saltwater intrusions will result, due to the melting of glaciers which will further reduce the availability of water. [14]

The effects on wildlife

Due to the drought animals were dying, some from starvation, others of thirst and many because their weak immune systems could not fight disease or infection.

By September 2009, at least 60 elephants and hundreds of animals had died in the country. [8]

There was a conflict between locals and wildlife due to the absence of land. Consequently, the pastoralists took their herds illegally into the national parks and wildlife reserves, in a search for grazing land and water. The pastoralists felt betrayed by their government because they thought that the interests of the tourists who come to see the wildlife had been put before their own. They questioned why they had to allow wildlife on to their land but could not legally use the parks and reserves for grazing at such difficult times. [8]

The effects on the GDP

Kenya's GDP 1964-2012 Kenya's GDP per capita since independence.png
Kenya's GDP 1964–2012

Before the 2008 drought, the Kenyan economy had been growing at relatively high annual rates ranging from 6 to 7 per cent, and it was expected to continue on the same path during the following years. The annual growth rate fell to 1.5 per cent because of the drought. Despite the growth they worked for in the construction sector, tourism and agriculture faced very high declines (-36 and -5 per cent, respectively), and inflation rose to an unprecedented annual rate of 26.2 per cent. [9]

In 2009, the government designed certain steps to promote growth in order to increase the GDP. These initiatives included restoration of investor confidence, an expansionary fiscal policy through a stimulus package, and monetary policy focus to preserve price stability at a single-digit rate. They were able to make the GDP rise by 2.6% with this method. The agriculture sector contracted by 2.7% due to the drought, high costs of inputs, and depressed demand for some of the country's exports due to the global financial crisis. [9]

In 2011, the GDP reached 10.06% due to the strong performance of the financial sector, construction and tourism. The population was also facing a high annual rate of inflation caused by rising food and fuel prices, which appeared to affect the poor disproportionately. The combination of four factors was also threatening the Kenyan economy: high fuel prices, high food prices, the drought in the Horn of Africa, and the Euro crisis. [9]

Responses

The main financial contributors in efforts were ALRMP (Arid Lands Resource Management Project) and the government; these organizations are designated a significant role under the country's drought management system.

ALRMP funded 83% of interventions and provided for 46% of total expenditure on drought response; 62% of the total transactions audited during 2007–2008 were suspected to be fraudulent or questionable. [15] Among the funds, foreign donors accounted for 8%. This is likely to be an underestimation because cost information for two-thirds of the projects funded by these donors were not available. Government accounted for 29% of spending, but just 6% of programs, reflecting the high cost of the commercial interventions for de-stocking. [2]

Trucking clean and safe water to East Africa Trucking clean, safe water (8025833147).jpg
Trucking clean and safe water to East Africa

Most water tankering interventions were not providing adequate supplementary water to justify the cost involved. The amount of that water in the communities was relatively limited, not even coming close to the MoWI’s suggested standard of 10 litres (2.2 imp gal) per person per day. [16]

In Dol Dol, the people were able to remain in the villages even though starvation had not been completely eradicated. Clean water tanks were distributed to the communities, who used it to cook their food, removing the need to walk 20 kilometres (12 mi) to fetch water (6:00 to 15:00 every day). The farm animals had access to water, but the impact was minimal as most died anyway.

There were two limits of the intervention. Firstly, the water supplied was not enough for all the inhabitants. Only those who lived near the roads could be helped, because the arid terrain made moving to the inner villages too risky. Secondly, whoever managed to acquire the water could only use it for cooking and drinking, because there was not enough to be used for chores such as washing clothes or bathing. They mostly targeted women and schools for water support, rather than the adult male population, therefore the community estimated only about 10 per cent of the population benefited. In Merti, Isiolo, the community also felt that the use of a Bowser (tanker) helped the people that were left in the villages, whilst the animal breeders were forced to migrate with their animals, looking for other natural sources. [2]

Commercial destocking responses

By the height of the drought in mid-2008, few measures had been implemented. Most of the effective measures occurred in 2009. Compared to other measures, de-stocking, restocking and animal health interventions began relatively late. All de-stocking options were carried out after June 2009, when the drought had reached its worst stage. After June, 63% of all measures were introduced, 77% related to animal feeding, 70% to borehole development/maintenance, and 54% for peace-building.

The Kenyan government began carry out de-stocking operations in May 2009. Effective contributions made from NGOs started later in the year, from July 2009. ALRMP, which began to contribute to interventions by the Kenyan government, [2] was the only exception to this latency of action by the key members. 49% of the total expenditure on livestock-related drought intervention between 2008 and 2009 was accounted for by conventional livestock interventions, which mainly included feed, health, and de-stocking. The Kenyan government and ALRMP were the biggest investors, highlighting the contributions made by organizations in the Kenyan drought management system.

Carcasses of dead livestock stretch across the landscape. 2011 Horn of Africa famine Oxfam 01.jpg
Carcasses of dead livestock stretch across the landscape.

Livestock responses

In Kenya, recurrent droughts can contribute to livestock disease. Consequently, more animal breeders chose to train in the field of livestock health. The increase in the number of trained and community-based health workers operating in the Turkana areas has enabled livestock keepers to acquire relevant skills through training and knowledge. [17]

A tradition of the Kenyan rural culture is that local herbs and techniques are used in the treatment of livestock diseases. In recent years, with the emergence of trained community-based animal health workers, a safer and more advanced control is being opted for. [17]

Responses assessment

The effectiveness of the drought intervention measures have been assessed in a range of studies. The main determinants which established the level of effectiveness of an intervention were whether the intervention was completed as planned and if they were able to deliver the intended benefits to the targeted beneficiaries. [18]

Contributions from NGOs were generally considered more effective than those completed by the Kenyan government. Specifically, the contributions that made most of the difference and therefore top-ranked in the highest average effectiveness ratings, were funded by international donors. It was not possible to determine a relationship between the effectiveness of an intervention and the time at which it started. [18]

On average, an intervention reached 3,227 individuals, increasing from 55 for peace-building to 22,370 for water trucking. The cost per individual reached was KSh.  3,362/= (approximately US$30.60 in 2021). This ranged from 163/= for water trucking to 8,652/= for emergency replenishment. This indicates that a total of more than 1.5 million people benefited, based on the presumption of no duplication (if the same person is benefiting from multiple interventions). [18] The real relative impact that each intervention has had on the population is difficult to assess even though there is evidence to determine a better efficacy of one intervention. The reason is that there is inadequate information on the scale of the benefits given to individuals and households. In general, there was no relationship between an intervention's efficacy and the capital invested in its success. [18]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intensive farming</span> Branch of agricultire

Intensive agriculture, also known as intensive farming, conventional, or industrial agriculture, is a type of agriculture, both of crop plants and of animals, with higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural land area. It is characterized by a low fallow ratio, higher use of inputs such as capital, labour, agrochemicals and water, and higher crop yields per unit land area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fodder</span> Agricultural foodstuff used to feed domesticated animals

Fodder, also called provender, is any agricultural foodstuff used specifically to feed domesticated livestock, such as cattle, rabbits, sheep, horses, chickens and pigs. "Fodder" refers particularly to food given to the animals, rather than that which they forage for themselves. Fodder includes hay, straw, silage, compressed and pelleted feeds, oils and mixed rations, and sprouted grains and legumes. Most animal feed is from plants, but some manufacturers add ingredients to processed feeds that are of animal origin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grazing</span> Feeding livestock on forage

In agriculture, grazing is a method of animal husbandry whereby domestic livestock are allowed outdoors to free range and consume wild vegetations in order to convert the otherwise indigestible cellulose within grass and other forages into meat, milk, wool and other animal products, often on land that is unsuitable for arable farming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rangeland</span> Biomes which can be grazed by animals or livestock (grasslands, woodlands, prairies, etc)

Rangelands are grasslands, shrublands, woodlands, wetlands, and deserts that are grazed by domestic livestock or wild animals. Types of rangelands include tallgrass and shortgrass prairies, desert grasslands and shrublands, woodlands, savannas, chaparrals, steppes, and tundras. Rangelands do not include forests lacking grazable understory vegetation, barren desert, farmland, or land covered by solid rock, concrete and/or glaciers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pastoralism</span> Branch of agriculture concerned with raising livestock

Pastoralism is a form of animal husbandry where domesticated animals are released onto large vegetated outdoor lands (pastures) for grazing, historically by nomadic people who moved around with their herds. The animal species involved include cattle, camels, goats, yaks, llamas, reindeer, horses, and sheep.

Nomadic pastoralism is a form of pastoralism in which livestock are herded in order to seek for fresh pastures on which to graze. True nomads follow an irregular pattern of movement, in contrast with transhumance, where seasonal pastures are fixed. However, this distinction is often not observed and the term 'nomad' used for both—and in historical cases the regularity of movements is often unknown in any case. The herded livestock include cattle, water buffalo, yaks, llamas, sheep, goats, reindeer, horses, donkeys or camels, or mixtures of species. Nomadic pastoralism is commonly practised in regions with little arable land, typically in the developing world, especially in the steppe lands north of the agricultural zone of Eurasia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kwale County</span> County in Kenya

Kwale County is a county in the former Coast Province of Kenya. Its capital is Kwale, although Ukunda is the largest town.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agriculture in Mauritania</span>

Located in the Sahelian and Saharan zones, Mauritania has one of the poorest agricultural bases in West Africa. Most important to the rural economy has been the livestock subsector. Between 1975 and 1980, herding engaged up to 70 percent of the population, and sedentary farmers constituted about 20 percent of the population. The vast majority of the population lived in the southern one-third of the country, where rainfall levels were high enough to sustain cattle herding. Farming was restricted to the narrow band along the Senegal River where rainfall of up to 600 millimeters per year and annual river flooding sustained crop production as well as large cattle herds. In the dry northern two-thirds of the country, herding was limited to widely scattered pastoral groups that raised camels, sheep, and goats, and farming was restricted to date palms and minuscule plots around oases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agriculture in Niger</span>

Agriculture is the primary economic activity of a majority of Niger's 17 million citizens.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water security</span> A goal of water management to harness water-related opportunities and manage risks

The aim of water security is to make the most of water's benefits for humans and ecosystems. The second aim is to limit the risks of destructive impacts of water to an acceptable level. These risks include for example too much water (flood), too little water or poor quality (polluted) water. People who live with a high level of water security always have access to "an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihoods and production". For example, access to water, sanitation and hygiene services is one part of water security. Some organizations use the term water security more narrowly for water supply aspects only.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Livestock</span> Animals kept for production of meat, eggs, milk, wool, etc.

Livestock are the domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting in order to provide labour and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The term is sometimes used to refer solely to animals who are raised for consumption, and sometimes used to refer solely to farmed ruminants, such as cattle, sheep, and goats. Horses are considered livestock in the United States. The USDA classifies pork, veal, beef, and lamb (mutton) as livestock, and all livestock as red meat. Poultry and fish are not included in the category. The latter is likely due to the fact that fish products are not governed by the USDA, but by the FDA.

Agriculture in Namibia contributes around 5% of the national Gross Domestic Product though 25% to 40% of Namibians depend on subsistence agriculture and herding. Primary products included livestock and meat products, crop farming and forestry. Only 2% of Namibia's land receives sufficient rainfall to grow crops. As all inland rivers are ephemeral, irrigation is only possible in the valleys of the border rivers Oranje, Kunene, and Okavango, and also at the Hardap Irrigation Scheme.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drylands</span> Ecozones where precipitation is balanced by evaporation from surfaces and by transpiration by plants

Drylands are defined by a scarcity of water. Drylands are zones where precipitation is balanced by evaporation from surfaces and by transpiration by plants (evapotranspiration). The United Nations Environment Program defines drylands as tropical and temperate areas with an aridity index of less than 0.65. One can classify drylands into four sub-types:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Africa</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of the African continent related to climate change

Climate change in Africa is an increasingly serious threat as Africa is among the most vulnerable continents to the effects of climate change. Some sources even classify Africa as "the most vulnerable continent on Earth". Climate change and climate variability will likely reduce agricultural production, food security and water security. As a result, there will be negative consequences on people's lives and sustainable development in Africa.

The water conflict between Ethiopia and Kenya is a development dispute due to the receding water resource along the border between Ethiopia and Kenya.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fulani herdsmen</span> Nomadic people in West Africa

Fulani herdsmen or Fulani pastoralists are nomadic or semi-nomadic Fulani people whose primary occupation is raising livestock. The Fulani herdsmen are largely located in the Sahel and semi-arid parts of West Africa, but due to relatively recent changes in climate patterns, many herdsmen have moved further south into the savannah and tropical forest belt of West Africa. The herdsmen are found in countries such as Nigeria, Niger, Senegal, Guinea, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, and Cameroon. In Senegal, they inhabit northeastern Ferlo and the southeastern part of the country. In some of these countries the Fula constitute a minority group. They inhabit Northern Nigeria and some parts of the country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal genetic resources for food and agriculture</span>

Animal genetic resources for food and agriculture (AnGR), also known as farm animal genetic resources or livestock biodiversity, are genetic resources of avian and mammalian species, which are used for food and agriculture purposes. AnGR is a subset of and a specific element of agricultural biodiversity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Kenya</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Kenya related to climate change

Climate change is posing an increasing threat to global socio-economic development and environmental sustainability. Developing countries with low adaptive capacity and high vulnerability to the phenomenon are disproportionately affected. Climate change in Kenya is increasingly impacting the lives of Kenya's citizens and the environment. Climate Change has led to more frequent extreme weather events like droughts which last longer than usual, irregular and unpredictable rainfall, flooding and increasing temperatures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of climate change on livestock</span> Effects of climate change on livestock rearing

There are numerous interlinked effects of climate change on livestock rearing. This activity is both heavily affected by and a substantial driver of anthropogenic climate change due to its greenhouse gas emissions. As of 2011, some 400 million people relied on livestock in some way to secure their livelihood. The commercial value of this sector is estimated as close to $1 trillion. As an outright end to human consumption of meat and/or animal products is not currently considered a realistic goal, any comprehensive adaptation to effects of climate change must also consider livestock.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate Change in Lesotho</span>

Lesotho is a country in southern Africa that is already experiencing the negative effects of climate change, including increased frequency of extreme weather, such as droughts, increased rates of soil erosion and desertification, and reduced soil fertility. Lesotho is a landlocked country that is particularly vulnerable to the negative impacts of climate variability and changes in water and food security, as well as adverse conditions to health, human settlements, and the energy sector.

References

  1. Regional Humanitarian Partnership Team (6 Feb 2009). "Horn of Africa Crisis Report" (PDF). Retrieved 3 November 2020.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Lammert Zwaagstra; Zahra Sharif; Ayago Wambile; Jan de Leeuw; Nancy Johnson; Jemimah Njuki; Mohammed Said; Polly Ericksen; Mario Herrero (12 May 2010). "A report to the European Union Delegation to the Republic of Kenya" (PDF). cgspace.cgiar.org.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Huho, Julius M.; Mugalavai, Edward M. (January 2010). "The Effects of Droughts on Food Security in Kenya". The International Journal of Climate Change: Impacts and Responses. Common Ground Research Networks. 2 (2): 61–72. doi:10.18848/1835-7156/CGP/v02i02/37312. ISSN   1835-7156.
  4. Schneck, Joshua (2020-06-23). "Kenya - Arid and semi-arid lands". IUCN. Retrieved 2020-11-10.
  5. 1 2 Peck, Dannele E.; Peterson, Jeffrey M. (2015). Climate Variability and Water Dependent Sectors: Impacts and Potential Adaptations. Routledge. ISBN   978-1-317-61427-2.
  6. Oduor, James; Swift, Jeremy; Birch, Izzy (2014), Singh, Ashbindu; Zommers, Zinta (eds.), "The Evolution of Kenya's Drought Management System", Reducing Disaster: Early Warning Systems For Climate Change, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 209–222, doi:10.1007/978-94-017-8598-3_11, ISBN   978-94-017-8598-3 , retrieved 2020-11-01
  7. Feed The Future (April 2018). "Global Food Security Strategy (GFSS) Kenya Country Plan" (PDF). USAID.gov.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Fretwell, Muriel (2015). Complete Geography for Cambridge IGCSE. Oxford University Press. p. 196. ISBN   978-0-19-913703-9.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Republic of Kenya, with technical support from the European Union, United Nations, and World Bank (2012). "Kenya Post-Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) 2008-2011 Drought" (PDF).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ISSAfrica.org (18 Jan 2011). "The Cycle of Drought in Kenya a Looming Humanitarian Crisis". ISS Africa. Retrieved 3 November 2020.
  11. Salih, Mohamed (2012). Local Climate Change and Society. Routledge. p. 119. ISBN   9780415627153.
  12. 1 2 "World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal". climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2020-11-20.
  13. Justus Ochieng; Lilian Kirimi; MaryMathenge (2016-06-01). "Effects of climate variability and change on agricultural production: The case of small scale farmers in Kenya". NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences. 77: 71–78. doi: 10.1016/j.njas.2016.03.005 . ISSN   1573-5214.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands. "Climate Change Profile: Kenya - Kenya". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 2020-11-02.
  15. AfriCOG, December 2012 https://africog.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/ALRMP_Report_final_abridged_August20131.pdf
  16. Wekesa, Mike; Karani, Irene (September 2009). "A Review of the Status of Emergency Water Trucking in the Arid and Semi Arid Districts of Kenya". Financed by ECHO, Commissioned by FAO for the Water and Environmental Sanitation Coordination: 1–66.
  17. 1 2 Opiyo, Francis; Wasonga, Oliver; Nyangito, Moses; Schilling, Janpeter; Munang, Richard (2015). "Drought Adaptation and Coping Strategies Among the Turkana Pastoralists of Northern Kenya". International Journal of Disaster Risk Science. 6 (3): 295–309. doi: 10.1007/s13753-015-0063-4 . hdl: 11858/00-001M-0000-002D-E460-2 . S2CID   167316299.
  18. 1 2 3 4 "An evaluation of the response to the 2008 – 2009 drought in Kenya". International Livestock Research Institute. 2010-10-12. Retrieved 2020-12-07.