The Alaska Territorial Guard (ATG), more commonly known as the Eskimo Scouts, was a military reserve force component of the US Army, organized in 1942 in response to attacks on United States soil in Hawaii and occupation of parts of Alaska by Japan during World War II. The ATG operated until 1947. 6,368 volunteers who served without pay were enrolled from 107 communities throughout Alaska in addition to a paid staff of 21, according to an official roster.[1] The ATG brought together for the first time into a joint effort members of these ethnic groups: Aleut, Athabaskan, White, Inupiaq, Haida, Tlingit, Tsimshian, Yupik, and most likely others. In later years, all members of some native units scored expert sharpshooter rankings.[2] Among the 27 or more women members were at least one whose riflery skills exceeded the men.[3] The ages of members at enrollment ranged from 80 years old[4] to as young as twelve[5] (both extremes occurring mostly in sparsely populated areas). As volunteers, the Alaska Territorial Guard members were those who were too young or too old to be eligible for conscription during the World War II.
They secured the terrain around the vital Lend-Leaseair route between the United States and the Soviet Union.
They placed and maintained survival caches primarily along transportation corridors and coastal regions.
In addition to official duties, ATG members are noted for actively and successfully promoting racial integration within US Armed Forces,[8][9] and racial equality within the communities they protected.[10]
Several former members of the ATG were instrumental in achieving Alaska Statehood in 1959, as members of the Alaska Statehood Committee and/or delegates to the Alaska Constitutional Convention.
In 2000 all ATG members were granted US veteran status by law, acknowledging the contribution of the ATG, some of whose members are still living.[11] But efforts to find the surviving ATG members and assist them through the application process are difficult due to lack of written records, oral cultures, lack of trained staff, passage of time, and unclear bureaucracies and advocates.
Nevertheless, active correction of the historical record is proceeding through the Alaska Army National Guard, office of Cultural Resources Management and Tribal Liaison ((888) 248-3682 toll-free) as well as the Office of Veterans Affairs, State of Alaska, PO Box 5800, Ft. Richardson, AK 99505-5800, (907) 428-6016.
Conditions leading up to the ATG
The original Alaska Territorial Guard patch created in 1942.
Before World War II, Alaska was regarded by US military decision makers as too distant from the contiguous United States to effectively protect, and of little strategic importance.[13]
"...the mainland of Alaska is so remote from the strategic areas of the Pacific that it is difficult to conceive of circumstances in which air operations therefrom would contribute materially to the national defense." – General Malin Craig, US Army Chief of Staff, November 1937[14]
This stands in marked contrast to the attitudes of US military leaders during the Cold War immediately after World War II:
"...as I continue to correspond and to talk with people throughout the United States and the Department of Defense, they too can see clearly the importance of these two battalions which you make up. The real honest-to-God and real-world first line of defense in Alaska ... nearer our opponent, Communist Russia, than any other armed troops in the United States." – General James F Hollingsworth, Commanding General, United States Army Alaska (USARAL), February 1971[15]
True to the earlier viewpoint, the US Army reassigned all Alaska National Guard units out of Alaska to Washington state in August 1941.[16] Alaska was now without military reserves or any form of Home Guard. In the face of an encroaching enemy, the defense of nearly 34,000 miles (55,000km) of US coastline was left to the best efforts of unorganized local citizens and already overworked seasonal laborers.
That enemy was demonstrating a definite interest in taking Alaska. In the early months of 1942, a Japanese Navyreconnaissance unit was caught on film making detailed surveys of Alaska coastline.
Enemy combatants strode unopposed onto American soil and made inquiries among the populace about the local economy.[17] Enemy aircraft and submarine sightings were common, inspiring great fear among the locals,[18] and culminating in the raid on Dutch Harbor and the occupation of the Aleutian Islands of Attu, Kiska and Adak that June.
Creation of the ATG
By the time of the Dutch Harbor bombing, Major Marvin R Marston had submitted a new plan to defend the entire Alaska coast by enlisting the local citizens.[19] He had conceived this plan while visiting Saint Lawrence Island and contemplating the fate of the locals he'd met.[20] Marston's proposal finally met with favor when word of it got to Alaska territorial governor Ernest Gruening.[21] Gruening had sought to organize a new guard for Alaska, including every able man and boy, since he got word that the US Army would reassign the Alaska National Guard.[16]
Motivated by the recent Dutch Harbor attack, the Alaska Command assigned Major Marston and Captain Carl Schreibner within days to serve as military aides to Governor Gruening. Shortly after, Gruening and Marston flew a chartered plane to begin setting up units of the new Alaska Territorial Guard. This included one of the most strategically important sites in all Alaska, a tiny mining town called Platinum—the only source of that strategic metal in all the Western Hemisphere.[7]
The enrollment drive continued into early 1943, the organizers travelling in all kinds of weather and by every available mode of transport, including airplane, boat, snowmobile, foot, and the most reliable means in the region, dogsled. When a promised plane failed to arrive after a week, Major Marston set out by dogsled on an epic 680-mile (1,090km) trip around the Seward Peninsula, during the coldest winter in 25 years.[22] He survived by foregoing standard military survival training in favor of the native methods of his Eskimo/Scout and Office of Strategic Services member guide, Sammy Mogg.[23]
Thanks to Marston and Mogg's heroic effort, the ATG stood as a first line of defense for the terrain around the Lend-Lease route from America to the Soviet Union, against an attack by Japan and the Axis Powers. This vital lifeline allowed the US to supply its Russian ally with essential military aircraft.[24] This lifeline had proven to be crucial to Russia's survival during Operation Barbarossa.
Organization of the ATG
Authority
The Alaska Territorial Guard was organized in June 1942 under the authority of the office of the territorial governor, Ernest Gruening, who served as Commander-In-Chief. All members took an oath to obey the Governor's orders. The governor was directly supported by the ATG Adjutant General, J. P. Williams. Headquarters was in the territorial capital, Juneau.
Mission
The mission of the ATG was to play a defensive role for the entire coast of Alaska.[25] Offensive action was the responsibility of Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas, with North Pacific forces operating from large bases at Dutch Harbor, Cold Bay and Anchorage.
The Alaska Territorial Guard operated from its inception in June 1942[26] until it was officially disbanded on 31 March 1947.[27]
By Geographic Area
The Territory of Alaska was divided vertically by the 156th Parallel[28] into Eastern and Western Areas. To the Eastern Area was added Southwest Alaska, including the Aleutian Islands, which had been evacuated of non-combatants.[29]
The Western Area had a Field Headquarters in Nome, with the offices of the Commander, Quartermaster, Instructors, Public Relations Officer and Chaplains. Other field staff were located in Anchorage, Koyuk, Selawik and Gambell (on Saint Lawrence Island, where Major Marston first conceived his plan).
The Eastern Area was headquartered in Juneau and held the offices of Property Officer (a role filled by the Adjutant General) and Instructors. Field staff were assigned to Glacier Highway, Douglas, Ketchikan, Palmer, Hoonah and Sitka.
The ATG, being organized by US Army officers,[30] made use of the same US Army rank structure, with these exceptions:
Throughout the duration of the ATG, no member rose above the rank of Lieutenant Colonel, including the Adjutant "General".
The designation "Private" appears to have been little used, though most members were in fact of Private rank.[31]
By Workload and Pay
The 21 staff officers were all full-time, paid positions (except for the governor, whose ATG duties were in addition to his regular office and without added salary). All other positions were strictly part-time volunteer, without pay.
By Sex
That total includes at least 27 ATG members who were women. Most women served as nurses at the field hospital in Kotzebue, although at least one woman served the ATG's primary mission alongside the men. Laura Beltz Wright of Haycock is also noted for being the best sharpshooter in her company, scoring 98% bulls-eyes.
By Age
The age of ATG members at enrollment ranged from 80 years old[4] to as young as twelve,[5][21] even though official regulations put the minimum age at sixteen.
By Number
All told, there were 6,389 members of the Alaska Territorial Guard, according to an official roster.[1]
Unofficial tally
Alongside those who served in the ATG, many others worked to support them, including food service, providing equipment and supplies to the Quartermaster, repair work, etc. Major Marston put the estimate at 20,000 Alaskans who materially participated in ATG activities, in his Western Area alone.[6]
ATG Activities
All ATG members except the 21 staff officers served without pay, and had to perform their new ATG duties in addition to the often difficult challenges of subsisting in Arctic and extreme marine environments.
The ATG trained for and/or actively carried out the following:
In addition, some ATG members performed the following:
Medical care at the field hospital in Kotzebue[39]
ATG Artists
During the 1930s, as part of FDR's New Deal programs to ease the country out of Great Depression, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) hired many noted American artists. On the US entry into World War II, several WPA artists took work with the War Department. A few of these artists made their way to Alaska to help document the Aleutian Campaign and other Alaskan military operations, including the new Alaska Territorial Guard. Some of their work was featured nationwide on a number of wartime posters. The artists included:
George Aden Ahgupuk (also known by the indigenous name Twok) - a Shishmaref artist since boyhood and later the village's postmaster, he was befriended by Major Marston, who wrote and spoke of his artistry within and outside the ATG.[49]
Several former members of the ATG were instrumental in achieving Alaska Statehood. In 1958 three of the eleven members of the Alaska Statehood Committee were former ATG members.[50] Seven delegates to the Alaska Constitutional Committee had served with the ATG. Both are listed below under Noted ATG Members.
ATG members were also active in promoting racial equality in their communities, insisting on equal treatment for natives and whites alike at movie theaters, restaurants and other public facilities.[10]
The bill was signed into law by President Bill Clinton that August.[52]
Because of disagreement as to whose responsibility it was to seek the ATG veterans out to inform them of the new law, and because of the advanced age and geographic isolation of many of the veterans, a temporary position, filled by retired colonel Robert A "Bob" Goodman, was created in the Alaska Department of Military and Veterans Affairs in 2003, to find and assist as many former ATG members as possible. After the position ended that October, Bob continued the work, on his own and funded out of his own pocket. In support of this effort, he founded the Alaska Territorial Guard Organization (ATGO), a 501(c)(3) non-profit, in April 2006. He continues the work with the help of a small paid and volunteer ATGO staff. To date, they have found and helped obtain an honorable discharge for about 150 ATG members. They estimate there are several hundred more yet to be found.[11]
1937 - The US Army officially declines a request for an air base in Alaska.[54]
1939 - Ernest Gruening is appointed Alaska territorial governor by his friend, US President Franklin D Roosevelt (FDR). Gruening gets four National Guard units organized in the Alaska Territory.
1940, March - A bill for an air base in Alaska fails to pass in the US House.[14]
1940, May - US Congress approves an air base in Alaska.[14] Air raids from northern Alaska would help counter any Nazi bases built in Greenland, as a polar projection map will attest).
1941, March - Marvin Marston is commissioned at the Pentagon as a major with orders to Alaska.[55]
Mid-1941 - Ernest Gruening seeks a new guard organization for Alaska, anticipating the reassignment of the Alaska National Guard.[16]
1941, August - The US Army reassigns Alaska National Guard soldiers away from Alaska, leaving the state with no military reserves or Home Guard.[16]
1942, Feb-March - A Japanese Navyreconnaissance unit is filmed making detailed surveys of the Alaska coastline. Japanese crewmen (enemy combatants) came ashore and questioned the locals about the area.[17]
1942, March - Major Marston realizes the practicality of a 'tundra army' to defend the entire Alaskan coast.
1942, March - Japanese aircraft are sighted over Saint Lawrence Island.[57]
1942, Mar/April - Major Marston presents a formal plan for the defense of Alaska shoreline.[58]
1942, June - The Alaska Command assigns Major Marvin Marston and Captain Carl Schreibner as military aides to Governor Gruening. Gruening and Marston soon embark on a trip to form the first units of the new Alaska Territorial Guard.[59]
1942 - Major Marston (by now known as "Muktuk" after an eating contest with a village headman) opts to make an ATG recruiting run by dogsled when a promised plane fails to show up.[60]
1943, January - Major Marston completes his circuit around the Seward Peninsula by dogsled during the coldest winter in 25 years.[22] Living by native methods, he continues to travel the Arctic through 1945.
1947 - The Alaska Territorial Guard is disbanded.[61]
1966 - The State of Alaska awards a medal to all ATG members.[27]
2000 - US SenatorTed Stevens' (R-AK) bill granting ATG members full veteran status is passed into law. Little is done to find and inform surviving ATG members and spouses, many of whom relocated numerous times in the intervening 53 years.[11]
2003 - Robert A "Bob" Goodman, Colonel (Retired), Alaska Air National Guard, takes up the task of finding as many former ATG members as possible, to help them apply for recognition as US veterans.[11]
Marston, Marvin R "Muktuk", Major, US Army - ATG organizer of Western Alaska, Constitutional Convention delegate, author of the book Men of the Tundra: Alaska Eskimos at War on the ATG, published in 1969
McNealy, Robert J - ATG corporal, Constitutional Convention delegate
Mogg, Samuel Snell "Sammy" - ATG lieutenant, guide who led Major Marston by dogsled on an epic 680-mile (1,090km) mid-winter organizing circuit around the Seward Peninsula.
Peratrovich, Frank J. - Tlingit native; ATG captain; mayor; territorial & state representative; senator & senate president; Statehood Committee member; Constitutional Convention first vice president
Reader, Peter L. - ATG member, Constitutional Convention delegate
Schreibner, Carl, Captain, US Army - ATG organizer of Eastern Alaska
Platinum is a city in Bethel Census Area, Alaska, United States. The population was 61 at the 2010 census, up from 41 in 2000.
Edward Lewis "Bob" Bartlett, was an American politician and a member of the Democratic Party. He served as a U.S. Senator. A key fighter for Alaska statehood, Bartlett served as the Secretary of Alaska Territory from 1939 to 1945, in Congress from 1945 to 1959 as a Delegate, and from 1959 until his death in 1968 as a U.S. senator. He was opposed to U.S. involvement in Vietnam, along with his fellow Senator Ernest Gruening, and also worked to warn people about the dangers of radiation. Many acts bear his name, including a major law known as the Bartlett Act, mandating handicap access in all federally-funded buildings.
Ernest Henry Gruening was an American journalist and politician. A member of the Democratic Party, Gruening was the governor of the Alaska Territory from 1939 until 1953, and a United States Senator from Alaska from 1959 until 1969.
The Territory of Alaska or Alaska Territory was an organized incorporated territory of the United States from August 24, 1912, until Alaska was granted statehood on January 3, 1959. The territory was previously Russian America, 1784–1867; the Department of Alaska, 1867–1884; and the District of Alaska, 1884–1912.
William Allen Egan was an American Democratic politician. He served as the first governor of the State of Alaska from January 3, 1959, to 1966 and 1970 to 1974, as well as a shadow U.S. Senator from Alaska Territory from 1956 to 1959. Born in Valdez, Alaska, Egan is one of only two governors in the state's history to have been born in Alaska. He was the Democratic nominee in the first five gubernatorial elections.
Michael Anthony Stepovich was an American lawyer and politician who served as the last non-acting Governor of the Territory of Alaska. Stepovich served as Territorial Governor from 1957 to 1958, and Alaska was given U.S. statehood in 1959.
The history of Alaska dates back to the Upper Paleolithic period, when foraging groups crossed the Bering land bridge into what is now western Alaska. At the time of European contact by the Russian explorers, the area was populated by Alaska Native groups. The name "Alaska" derives from the Aleut word Alaxsxaq, meaning "mainland".
The Alaska Statehood Act was a legislative act introduced by Delegate E. L. "Bob" Bartlett and signed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on July 7, 1958. Through it, Alaska became the 49th U.S. state on January 3, 1959. The law was the culmination of a multi-decade effort by many prominent Alaskans, including Bartlett, Ernest Gruening, Bill Egan, Bob Atwood, and Ted Stevens.
The Constitution of the State of Alaska was ratified on April 4, 1956 and took effect with Alaska's admission to the United States as a U.S. state on January 3, 1959.
Burke Riley was an American Democratic legislator, lawyer and public official on territorial, state and national levels. He served as the Secretary of Alaska Territory from 1952-1953 under Governor Ernest Gruening. He was a signer of the Alaska Constitution, elected as one of seven at-large delegates from the First Division.
Castner's Cutthroats was the unofficial name for the 1st Alaskan Combat Intelligence Platoon (Provisional), also known as Alaskan Scouts. Castner's Cutthroats fought during World War II and were instrumental in defeating the Japanese during the Aleutian Islands Campaign. The unit was composed of just sixty-five men selected to perform reconnaissance missions in the Aleutian Islands during the war.
Otto William Geist, a.k.a. Aghvook, was an archaeologist, explorer and naturalist who worked in the circumpolar north and for the University of Alaska for much of his adult life.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the U.S. state of Alaska:
Segundo Llorente Villa was a Spanish Jesuit, philosopher and author who spent 40 years as a missionary among the Yup'ik in the most remote parts of Alaska. In 1960, he won a seat in the 2nd Alaska State Legislature as a write-in candidate, becoming the state’s first Catholic priest elected to office, as well as one of two write-in candidates elected that year from rural Alaska. He wrote hundreds of essays and one dozen autobiographical books in Spanish and English about his life in Alaska. Llorente is called the "favorite son" of his hometown, Mansilla Mayor.
Olga Katherine Torkelsen Hurley was the secretary to Alaska Territorial Governor Ernest Gruening from 1944 until his departure from office in 1953. She was Chief Clerk to the Alaska Constitutional Convention from 1955 to 1956 and the secretary to the State Senate for five terms. In 1984, she was elected to seat 16-A in the Alaska House, serving until January 1987.
The history of the Jews in Alaska began before the Alaska Purchase in 1867. Jews from Imperial Russia lived there periodically as fur traders, and a Jewish community has existed since the 1880s. The Klondike and Nome gold rushes attracted Jews to Alaska to seek their fortunes as miners and businessmen and resulted in the first organized Jewish communities. In the Nazi period, Jewish refugee resettlement in Alaska was seriously considered by the government, but after facing backlash, never came to be. Alaskan Jews played a significant role in business and politics before and after statehood, and have included mayors, judges, senators and governors. Today, there are Jews living in every urban area of the state.
Mount Ernest Gruening is a 6,015+ ft glaciated mountain summit located in the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains, in the U.S. state of Alaska. The long ridge-like mountain is situated between the Herbert Glacier and Eagle Glacier at the west edge of the Juneau Icefield, 20 mi (32 km) northwest of Juneau, Alaska, and 8 mi (13 km) east of Favorite Channel, on land managed by Tongass National Forest. Although modest in elevation, relief is significant since the east face of the mountain rises over 3,500 feet above the Herbert Glacier in less than one mile, and the west aspect rises 5,800 feet above the Eagle River valley in two miles.
Laura Mae Bergt was an Iñupiaq athlete, model, politician, and activist for the Iñupiat and other Indigenous Alaskans. Born in the Northwest Arctic Borough of Alaska to bi-racial parents, she grew up in Nome and Kotzebue before attending high school in Sitka. Involved in the Native Olympic movement, she was both a nine-times winner of the Arctic Circle blanket toss event and served as chair of the World Eskimo Indian Olympics in 1966. She worked as a promoter for the new state of Alaska attending trade shows and making marketing appearances as a spokeswoman and guest on radio and television programs. From the 1960s, she worked in various policy positions at the tribal, local, state, and national level to address issues like disability, education, employment opportunities, housing, and poverty, and promoting the rights of Indigenous people.
References
1 2 Roster of the Alaska Territorial Guard, Alaska Territorial Guard, 1947
↑ Gruening, Ernest (1969), Introduction - Men of the Tundra: Alaska Eskimos at War, October House, pp.7–8
↑ Marston, Marvin (1969), Men of the Tundra: Alaska Eskimos at War, October House, pp.104e
1 2 Marston, Marvin (1969), Men of the Tundra: Alaska Eskimos at War, October House, pp.127–128
1 2 Gruening, Ernest (1969), Introduction - Men of the Tundra: Alaska Eskimos at War, October House, p.5
1 2 3 Marston, Marvin (1969), Men of the Tundra: Alaska Eskimos at War, October House, p.190
1 2 Marston, Marvin (1969), Men of the Tundra: Alaska Eskimos at War, October House, pp.51, 54–57
↑ Marston, Marvin (1969), Men of the Tundra: Alaska Eskimos at War, October House, pp.210–212
↑ Necrason, C F (1969), Epilogue - Men of the Tundra: Alaska Eskimos at War, October House, pp.210–212, 215–217
1 2 Marston, Marvin (1969), Men of the Tundra: Alaska Eskimos at War, October House, pp.130–140
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