In English,the Mukden incident is also known as the Manchurian incident. In Japanese,"Manchurian incident" (Kyūjitai:滿洲事變,Shinjitai:満州事変,Manshū-jihen) usually refers to the entire sequence of events (including the invasion),rather than just the initial September 1931 attack on the railway line. In Chinese,the attack on the railway line is known as the Liutiao Lake incident (traditional Chinese:柳條湖事變;simplified Chinese:柳条湖事变;pinyin:LiǔtiáohúShìbiàn) and the "9.18/September 18 incident" (九・一八事变;JiǔyībāShìbiàn) refers to the entire sequence of events.
Background
Renault FT tanks captured by the Japanese after the September 18th incident,September 19,1931.
Japanese economic presence and political interest in Manchuria had been growing ever since the end of the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905). The Treaty of Portsmouth that ended the war had granted Japan the lease of the South Manchuria Railway branch (from Changchun to Lüshun) of the China Far East Railway. The Japanese government,however,claimed that this control included all the rights and privileges that China granted to Russia in the 1896 Li–Lobanov Treaty,as enlarged by the Kwantung Lease Agreement of 1898. This included absolute and exclusive administration within the South Manchuria Railway Zone. Japanese railway guards were stationed within the zone to provide security for the trains and tracks;however,these were regular Japanese soldiers,and they frequently carried out maneuvers outside the railway areas.[citation needed]
The 1929 Sino-Soviet conflict (July–November) over the Chinese Eastern Railroad (CER) further increased the tensions in the Northeast that would lead to the Mukden incident. The Soviet Red Army victory over Zhang Xueliang's forces not only reasserted Soviet control over the CER in Manchuria but revealed Chinese military weaknesses that Japanese Kwantung Army officers were quick to note.[10]
The Soviet Red Army performance also stunned Japanese officials. Manchuria was central to Japan's East Asia policy. Both the 1921 and 1927 Imperial Eastern Region Conferences reconfirmed Japan's commitment to be the dominant power in Manchuria. The 1929 Red Army victory shook that policy to the core and reopened the Manchurian problem. By 1930,the Kwantung Army realized they faced a Red Army that was only growing stronger. The time to act was drawing near and Japanese plans to conquer the Northeast were accelerated.[11]
In April 1931,a national leadership conference of China was held between Chiang Kai-shek and Zhang Xueliang in Nanjing. They agreed to put aside their differences and assert China's sovereignty in Manchuria strongly.[12] On the other hand,some officers of the Kwantung Army began to plot to invade Manchuria secretly. There were other officers who wanted to support plotters in Tokyo.[citation needed]
Events
Japanese soldiers of 29th Regiment on the Mukden West Gate
Believing that a conflict in Manchuria would be in the best interests of Japan,Kwantung Army Colonel SeishirōItagaki and Lieutenant Colonel Kanji Ishiwara independently devised a plan to prompt Japan to invade Manchuria by provoking an incident from Chinese forces stationed nearby. However,after the Japanese Minister of WarJirōMinami dispatched Major General Yoshitsugu Tatekawa to Manchuria for the specific purpose of curbing the insubordination and militarist behavior of the Kwantung Army,Itagaki and Ishiwara believed that they no longer had the luxury of waiting for the Chinese to respond to provocations but had to stage their own.[13]
Itagaki and Ishiwara chose to sabotage the rail section in an area near Liutiao Lake (柳條湖;liǔtiáohú). The area had no official name and was not militarily important,but it was only eight hundred meters away from the Chinese garrison of Beidaying (北大營;běidàyíng),where troops under the command of the "Young Marshal" Zhang Xueliang were stationed. The Japanese plan was to attract Chinese troops by an explosion and then blame them for having caused the disturbance in order to provide a pretext for a formal Japanese invasion. In addition,they intended to make the sabotage appear more convincing as a calculated Chinese attack on an essential target,thereby making the expected Japanese reaction appear as a legitimate measure to protect a vital railway of industrial and economic importance. The Japanese press labeled the site "Liǔtiáo Ditch" (柳條溝;liǔtiáogōu) or "Liǔtiáo Bridge" (柳條橋;liǔtiáoqiáo),when in reality,the site was a small railway section laid on an area of flat land. The choice to place the explosives at this site was to preclude the extensive rebuilding that would have been necessitated had the site actually been a railway bridge.[13]
Incident
Japanese experts inspect the "sabotaged" South Manchurian Railway.
A section of the Liǔtiáo Railway. The caption reads "railway fragment".
The plan was executed when 1st Lieutenant Suemori Kawamoto of the Independent Garrison Unit (獨立守備隊) of the 29th Infantry Regiment,which guarded the South Manchuria Railway,placed explosives near the tracks,but far enough away to do no real damage.[4] At around 10:20p.m. (22:20),September 18,the explosives were detonated. However,the explosion was minor and only a 1.5-meter section on one side of the rail was damaged. In fact,a train from Changchun passed by the site on this damaged track without difficulty and arrived in Shenyang at 10:30p.m. (22:30).[15]
On the morning of September 19,two artillery pieces installed at the Shenyang officers' club opened fire on the Chinese garrison nearby,in response to the alleged Chinese attack on the railway. Chang Hsueh-liang's small air force was destroyed,and his soldiers fled their destroyed Beidaying barracks,as five hundred Japanese troops attacked the Chinese garrison of around seven thousand. The Chinese troops were no match for the experienced Japanese troops. By the evening,the fighting was over,and the Japanese had occupied Mukden at the cost of five hundred Chinese lives and only two Japanese lives.[16]
At Dalian in the Kwantung Leased Territory,Commander-in-Chief of the Kwantung Army General Shigeru Honjō was at first appalled that the invasion plan was enacted without his permission,[17] but he was eventually convinced by Ishiwara to give his approval after the act. Honjōmoved the Kwantung Army headquarters to Mukden and ordered General Senjuro Hayashi of the Chosen Army of Japan in Korea to send in reinforcements. At 04:00 on 19 September,Mukden was declared secure.
Zhang Xueliang personally ordered his men not to put up a fight and to store away any weapons when the Japanese invaded. Therefore,the Japanese soldiers proceeded to occupy and garrison the major cities of Changchun and Dandong and their surrounding areas with minimal difficulty. However,in November,General Ma Zhanshan,the acting governor of Heilongjiang,began resistance with his provincial army,followed in January by Generals Ding Chao and Li Du with their local Jilin provincial forces. Despite this resistance,within five months of the Mukden incident,the Imperial Japanese Army had overrun all major towns and cities in the provinces of Liaoning,Jilin,and Heilongjiang.[13]
Aftermath
Chinese public opinion strongly criticized Zhang Xueliang for his non-resistance to the Japanese invasion. While the Japanese presented a real threat,the Kuomintang directed most of their efforts towards eradication of the communist party. Many charged that Chang's Northeastern Army of nearly a quarter million could have withstood the Kwantung Army of only 11,000 men. In addition,his arsenal in Manchuria was considered the most modern in China,and his troops had possession of tanks,around 60 combat aircraft,4000 machine guns,and four artillery battalions.
Zhang Xueliang's seemingly superior force was undermined by several factors. The first was that the Kwantung Army had a strong reserve force that could be transported by railway from Korea,which was a Japanese colony,directly adjacent to Manchuria. Secondly,more than half of Zhang's troops were stationed south of the Great Wall in Hebei Province,while the troops north of the wall were scattered throughout Manchuria. Therefore,deploying Zhang's troops north of the Great Wall meant that they lacked the concentration needed to fight the Japanese effectively. Most of Zhang's troops were under-trained,poorly led,poorly fed,and had poor morale and questionable loyalty compared to their Japanese counterparts. Japanese secret agents had permeated Zhang's command because of his and his father Zhang Zuolin's past reliance on Japanese military advisers. The Japanese knew the Northeastern Army very well and were able to conduct operations with ease.[13]
The Chinese government was preoccupied with numerous internal problems,including the issue of the newly independent Guangzhou government of Hu Hanmin,Chinese Communist Party insurrections,and 1931 China floods of the Yangtze River that created tens of thousands of refugees. Moreover,Zhang himself was not in Manchuria at the time,but was in a hospital in Beijing to raise money for the flood victims. However,in the Chinese newspapers,Zhang was ridiculed as "General Nonresistance" (Chinese:不抵抗將軍;pinyin:BùDǐkàng Jiāngjūn).
Chinese delegate addresses the League of Nations after the Mukden incident in 1932.
Because of these circumstances,the central government turned to the international community for a peaceful resolution. The Chinese Foreign Ministry issued a strong protest to the Japanese government and called for the immediate stop to Japanese military operations in Manchuria,and appealed to the League of Nations,on September 19. On October 24,the League of Nations passed a resolution mandating the withdrawal of Japanese troops,to be completed by 16 November. However,Japan rejected the League of Nations resolution and insisted on direct negotiations with the Chinese government. Negotiations went on intermittently without much result.[13]
On November 20,a conference in the Chinese government was convened,but the Guangzhou faction of the Kuomintang insisted that Chiang Kai-shek step down to take responsibility for the Manchurian debacle. On December 15,Chiang resigned as the Chairman of the Nationalist government and was replaced as Premier of the Republic of China (head of the Executive Yuan) by Sun Fo,son of Sun Yat-sen. Jinzhou,another city in Liaoning,was lost to the Japanese in early January 1932. As a result,Wang Jingwei replaced Sun Fo as the Premier.[18]
On January 7,1932,United States Secretary of State Henry Stimson issued his Stimson Doctrine,that the United States would not recognize any government that was established as the result of Japanese actions in Manchuria. On January 14,a League of Nations commission,headed by Victor Bulwer-Lytton,2nd Earl of Lytton,disembarked at Shanghai to examine the situation. In March,the puppet state of Manchukuo was established,with the former emperor of China,Puyi,installed as head of state.[19]
On October 2,the Lytton Report was published and rejected the Japanese claim that the Manchurian invasion and occupation was an act of self-defense,although it did not assert that the Japanese had perpetrated the initial bombing of the railroad. The report ascertained that Manchukuo was the product of Japanese military aggression in China,while recognizing that Japan had legitimate concerns in Manchuria because of its economic ties there. The League of Nations refused to acknowledge Manchukuo as an independent nation. Japan resigned from the League of Nations in March 1933.[19][13] It thereafter became more aggressive in China.[20]:18
Colonel Kenji Doihara used the Mukden incident to continue his campaign of disinformation. Since the Chinese troops at Mukden had put up such poor resistance,he told Manchukuo Emperor Puyi that this was proof that the Chinese remained loyal to him. Japanese intelligence used the incident to continue the campaign to discredit the murdered Zhang Zuolin and his son Zhang Xueliang for "misgovernment" of Manchuria. In fact,drug trafficking and corruption had largely been suppressed under Zhang Zuolin.[21]
Different opinions still exist as to who caused the explosion on the Japanese railroad at Mukden. Strong evidence points to young officers of the Japanese Kwantung Army having conspired to cause the blast,with or without direct orders from Tokyo. Post-war investigations confirmed that the original bomb planted by the Japanese failed to explode,and a replacement had to be planted. The resulting explosion enabled the Japanese Kwantung Army to accomplish their goal of triggering a conflict with Chinese troops stationed in Manchuria and the subsequent establishment of the puppet state of Manchukuo.
The 9.18 Incident Exhibition Museum (九・一八歷史博物館) at Shenyang,opened by the People's Republic of China on September 18,1991,takes the position that the explosives were planted by Japan. The Yūshūkan museum,located within Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo,also places the blame on members of the Kwantung Army.
David Bergamini's book Japan's Imperial Conspiracy (1971) has a detailed chronology of events in both Manchuria and Tokyo surrounding the Mukden incident. Bergamini concludes that the greatest deception was that the Mukden incident and Japanese invasion were planned by junior or hot-headed officers,without formal approval by the Japanese government. However,historian James Weland has concluded that senior commanders had tacitly allowed field operatives to proceed on their own initiative,then endorsed the result after a positive outcome was assured.[22]
In August 2006,the Yomiuri Shimbun,Japan's top-selling newspaper,published the results of a year-long research project into the general question of who was responsible for the "Shōwa war". With respect to the Manchurian incident,the newspaper blamed ambitious Japanese militarists,as well as politicians who were impotent to rein them in or prevent their insubordination.[23][24]
Debate has also focused on how the incident was handled by the League of Nations and the subsequent Lytton Report. A. J. P. Taylor wrote that "In the face of its first serious challenge",the League buckled and capitulated. The Washington Naval Conference (1921) guaranteed a certain degree of Japanese hegemony in East Asia. Any intervention on the part of America would be a breach of the already mentioned agreement. Furthermore,Britain was in crisis,having been recently forced off the gold standard. Although a power in East Asia at the time,Britain was incapable of decisive action. The only response from these powers was "moral condemnation".[25]
Historiography
In 2017,the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) officially recognized the Mukden incident as the start of its "War of Resistance" against the Empire of Japan as opposed to the 1937 Marco Polo Bridge incident. Historian Emily Matson stated that this shift in the official timeline is part of a domestic "legitimizing narrative" that aims to enhance the CCP's prestige and discredit the Nationalist government's "nonresistance policy" at the time.[26]
Remembrance
Each year at 10:00a.m. on 18 September,air-raid sirens sound for several minutes in numerous major cities across China. Provinces include Heilongjiang,Jilin,Liaoning,Hainan,and others.[27][28]
The Mukden incident is depicted in The Adventures of Tintin comic The Blue Lotus, although the book places the bombing near Shanghai. Here it is performed by Japanese agents and the Japanese exaggerate the incident.[29]
The Chinese patriotic song Along the Songhua River describes the lives of the people who had lost their homeland in Northeast China after the Mukden incident.[30][31]
Junji Kinoshita's play A Japanese Called Otto,[34] opens with the characters discussing the Mukden incident.
The 2010 Japanese animeNight Raid 1931 is a 13-episode spy/pulp series set in 1931 Shanghai and Manchuria. Episode 7, "Incident", specifically covers the Mukden incident.[35]
The violent mangaGantz has a reference when an elder says that an occurrence reminds him of the "Manchurian incident".[where?— see talk page]
Manchukuo was a puppet state of the Empire of Japan in Northeast China that existed from 1932 until its dissolution in 1945. It was ostensibly founded as a republic, its territory consisting of the lands seized in the Japanese invasion of Manchuria; it was later declared to be a constitutional monarchy in 1934, though very little changed in the actual functioning of government. Manchukuo received limited diplomatic recognition, mostly from states aligned with the Axis powers, with its existence widely seen as illegitimate.
Kanji Ishiwara was a general in the Imperial Japanese Army in World War II. He and Itagaki Seishirō were the men primarily responsible for the Mukden Incident that took place in Manchuria in 1931.
Zhang Zuolin was a Chinese warlord who ruled Manchuria from 1916 to 1928 and led the Fengtian clique, one of the most powerful factions during the Warlord Era. In 1927, he became the leader of the Beiyang government and was declared Generalissimo of the Republic of China.
This article is concerned with the events that preceded World War II in Asia.
The defense of the Great Wall was a campaign between the armies of Republic of China and Empire of Japan, which took place before the Second Sino-Japanese War officially commenced in 1937 and after the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931. It is known in Japanese as Operation Nekka and in many English sources as the First Battle of Hopei.
The Northeastern Army, also known as the Fengtian Army, was a Chinese army that existed from 1911 to 1937. General Zhang Zuolin developed it as an independent fighting force during the Warlord Era. He used the army to control Northeastern China (Manchuria) and intervene in the national politics. During the mid-1920s the Northeastern Army was the dominant military force in China, but in 1928 it was defeated by the Kuomintang's National Revolutionary Army (NRA) during the Northern Expedition. At the end of that campaign, Zhang Zuolin was assassinated and succeeded by his son Zhang Xueliang. When Xueliang subsequently pledged loyalty to the Kuomintang, the Northeastern Army became part of the NRA and was officially rechristened the "Northeastern Border Defense Force".
Zhang Jinghui was a Chinese general, warlord and politician during the Warlord era. He is noted for his role in the Japanese puppet regime of Manchukuo in which he served as Prime Minister for most of its existence.
The Huanggutun incident, also known as the Zhang Zuolin Explosion Death Incident, was the assassination of the Fengtian warlord and Generalissimo of the Military Government of China Zhang Zuolin near Shenyang on 4 June 1928.
The Northeast Flag Replacement refers to Zhang Xueliang's announcement on 29 December 1928 that all banners of the Beiyang government in Manchuria would be replaced with the flag of the Nationalist government, thus nominally uniting China under one government.
The Jiangqiao campaign was a series of battles and skirmishes occurring after the Mukden Incident, during the invasion of Manchuria by the Imperial Japanese Army, prior to the Second Sino-Japanese War.
Ma Zhanshan was a Chinese general famous for resisting the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Ma was placed in charge of the Northeastern Army in Heilongjiang Province during the invasion and ignored orders from the central government not to resist the Japanese. He became a national hero in China by fighting the unsuccessful but highly symbolic Jiangqiao campaign against the Kwantung Army's advance into Heilongjiang. After his defeat, he feigned defection to the Japanese and was appointed Minister of War in the new Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo. He then joined and took command of the guerrilla campaign against Japanese occupation, taking with him large amounts of supplies, funds, and military intelligence. Ma Zhanshan rejoined the Northeastern Army after the guerrilla movement was largely defeated. He continued to oppose Chiang Kai-shek's policy of non-resistance and supported the Xi'an Incident that forced Chiang to form the Second United Front with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). He commanded several units in the National Revolutionary Army during the Second Sino-Japanese War while covertly cooperating with the CCP. Ma avoided direct participation in the postwar Chinese Civil War and eventually defected to the Communists, dying a year later in 1950.
The Empire of Japan's Kwantung Army invaded the Manchuria region of the Republic of China on 18 September 1931, immediately following the Mukden incident, a false flag event staged by Japanese military personnel as a pretext to invade. At the war's end in February 1932, the Japanese established the puppet state of Manchukuo. The occupation lasted until mid-August 1945, towards the end of the Second World War, in the face of an onslaught by the Soviet Union and Mongolia during the Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation.
The Jinzhou Operation or Chinchow Operation was an operation in 1931 during the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, which was a preliminary, contributing factor to the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937.
The Pacification of Manchukuo was a Japanese counterinsurgency campaign to suppress any armed resistance to the newly established puppet state of Manchukuo from various anti-Japanese volunteer armies in occupied Manchuria and later the Communist Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army. The operations were carried out by the Imperial Japanese Kwantung Army and the collaborationist forces of the Manchukuo government from March 1932 until 1942, and resulted in a Japanese victory.
Zhang Haipeng, was a Chinese Northeastern Army general, who went over to the Japanese during the Invasion of Manchuria and became a general in the Manchukuo Imperial Army of the State of Manchuria.
Yu Zhishan, was a military officer under the Beiyang Government and the Fengtian clique, subsequently becoming a cabinet minister in Manchukuo.
Lu Ronghuan, was a politician in the early Republic of China who subsequently served in a number of Cabinet posts of the Empire of Manchukuo.
The Kwantung Army was a general army of the Imperial Japanese Army from 1919 to 1945.
Zhu Qinglan, formerly transliterated as Chu Ching-lan courtesy name Ziqiao was a Chinese military officer of the Republic of China.
The National Pacification Army (NPA), also known as the Anguojun or Ankuochun, was a warlord coalition led by Fengtian clique General Zhang Zuolin, and was the military arm of the Beiyang government of the Republic of China during its existence.
References
Citations
↑ The Cambridge History of Japan: The Twentieth Century, p. 294, Peter Duus,John Whitney Hall, Cambridge University Press: 1989 ISBN978-0-521-22357-7
↑ An instinct for War: Scenes from the battlefields of history, p. 315, Roger J. Spiller, ISBN978-0-674-01941-6; Harvard University Press
↑ Concise dictionary of modern Japanese history, p. 120, Janet Hunter, University of California Press: 1984, ISBN978-0-520-04557-6
1 2 The Cambridge History of Japan: The Twentieth Century, p. 294, Peter Duus, John Whitney Hall, Cambridge University Press: 1989. ISBN978-0-521-22357-7
↑ Fenby, Jonathan. Chiang Kai-shek: China's Generalissimo and the Nation He Lost. Carroll & Graf: 2003, p. 202
↑ Encyclopedia of war crimes and genocide, p. 128, Leslie Alan Horvitz & Christopher Catherwood, Facts on File (2011); ISBN978-0-8160-8083-0
↑ Chronology of Major International Events from 1931 through 1943, with Ostensible Reasons Advanced for the Occurrence Thereof 78th Congress, 2d Session. "An explosion undoubtedly occurred on or near the railroad between 10 and 10:30 p.m. on September 18th, but the damage, if any, to the railroad did not in fact prevent the punctual arrival of the south-bound train from Changchun, and was not in itself sufficient to justify military action. The military operations of the Japanese troops during this night, ... cannot be regarded as measures of legitimate self-defense..." [Opinion of Commission of Inquiry], ibid., p. 71
↑ Weland, James (1994). "Misguided Intelligence: Japanese Military Intelligence Officers in the Manchurian Incident, September 1931". Journal of Military History. 58 (3): 445–460. doi:10.2307/2944134. JSTOR2944134.
Jowett, Philip (2005). Rays of the Rising Sun, Volume 1: Japan's Asian Allies 1931–45, China and Manchukuo. Helion and Company Ltd. ISBN978-1-874622-21-5.
Lensen, George Alexander (1974). The Damned Inheritance: The Soviet Union and the Manchurian Crises 1924–1935. The Diplomatic Press.
Lofficier, Jean-Marc; Lofficier, Randy (2002). The Pocket Essential Tintin. Harpenden, Hertfordshire: Pocket Essentials. ISBN978-1-904048-17-6.
Long-hsuen, Hsu; Chang Ming-kai (1971). History of The Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) (2nded.). 33, 140th Lane, Tung-hwa Street, Taipei, Taiwan: Chung Wu Publishing.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
Lucas, David G. Strategic Disharmony: Japan, Manchuria, and Foreign Policy (Air War College, 1995) online.
Matsusaka, Yoshihisa Tak (2003). The Making of Japanese Manchuria, 1904-1932. Harvard U Asia Center. ISBN978-0-674-01206-6.
Ogata, Sadako N. Defiance in Manchuria: the making of Japanese foreign policy, 1931-1932 (U of California Press, 1964).
Yoshihashi, Takehiko. Conspiracy at Mukden: the rise of the Japanese military (Yale UP, 1963) online
Wright, Quincy (1932–02). "The Manchurian Crisis". American Political Science Review. 26 (1): 45–76.
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