Anopheles atroparvus

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Anopheles atroparvus
Anopheles -atroparvus.png
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Culicidae
Genus: Anopheles
Subgenus: Anopheles
Species:
A. atroparvus
Binomial name
Anopheles atroparvus
Van Thiel, 1927

Anopheles atroparvus is a European species of mosquito, which was first identified in 1927. It is one of the most abundant palearctic Anopheles species belonging to the family Culicidae, commonly called mosquitoes. Although research interest in A. atroparvus has been low in the past several decades, recent concern for an increase in vector-borne disease has encouraged new research into this species.

Contents

Anopheles atroparvus underwent population reduction in many areas where it was once abundant due to pollution of natural habitats, vector control measures, and the reduction of suitable habitat through drying or flooding. [ citation needed ] It is the natural prey to many fish and insect species, and preys upon mainly humans, birds and livestock associated with farmland and farm dwellings.

Taxonomy

Anopheles atroparvus belongs to the subgenre Anopheles among a group defined by the maculipennis complex [1] [2] [3] Differentiation between Anopheles species is often not possible at a phenotypic level but instead is observed in behavior, such as differences in habitats or hibernation habits, [3] or variation at a genetic level. [4] [3] [2]

Distribution and habitat

Distribution

Vastly distributed throughout most of Europe, specifically northern regions, with little or no known populations in Southern and South eastern Europe. [5] [6] A. atroparvus is currently assumed not to live in Italy, Greece or Turkey. [6] [5] [7] Distribution of A. atroparvus is affected in some areas due to competition with related species. [6] Other constraints on distribution depends on habitat suitability; A. atroparvus is limited by the need for water and vegetation to reproduce and minimize the risk of predation. [8] Because A. atroparvus tends to like warmer climate, [9] global climate change could result in changing habitat distribution for A. atroparvus and it is generally considered to result in an increase in population density of the species. [6] [10]

Habitat

Anopheles atroparvus is common to both coastal and inland areas where short lived still water bodies are plentiful. [5] [9] Adults live in close association with the animal and human blood hosts that it feeds on and tend to live in farm homes and other dwellings. [5] [10] [8] Suitable habitat for larval stages is mainly in wide, shallow non-permanent water bodies of brackish water, commonly in association with irrigated fields especially crops such as rice. [5] [8] Unlike many other species, A. atroparvus remains active in the winter months, at which time it will still take blood meals, but will not lay eggs. [3] [9] Their activity in the winter may result in an annual reduction in population as competition for food and shelter rises. [2] A. atroparvus displays genetic diversity for protection against common insecticides used on crops, making it easier for them to live on farmland. [11] [10]

Life cycle

Adult A. atroparvus can be active feeders all year round, but cannot lay eggs in the winter and tend to dwell inside through the winter months. [8] [9] They are most active during the summer months (June-July). [8] During the warmer months, eggs are laid in suitable water bodies, where they will hatch and larva will remain in the water until they develop into adults. [8] [5] [12] Females have been recorded to have a short life span. [13]

Larval stages require water for development and it is not until they become adults that they can survive a non-aquatic environment. [5] This species shows some adaptability when recent observations have recorded larvae present in small water bodies within towns such as overgrown roadsides, which were not considered suitable in the past. [2]

Parasitology

Anopheles atroparvus is a well known historical vector for malaria ( Plasmodium spp) particularly throughout Europe and the UK, [5] [2] [12] [6] and is considered the main vector for malaria in many countries such as Romania, Portugal, France and the Netherlands. [12] [13] [6] [10] In Spain, A. atroparvus has been identified as the main vector for two different malaria parasites ( Plasmodium vivax & Plasmodium falciparum ). [5] Although malaria has been considered absent of natural strains in Europe, changing climate and human caused land conditioning via agriculture or environmental protection measures could cause an increase in population of A. atroparvus in areas where it used to be a main vector for the disease. [6] [5] [4] [2] Because A. atroparvus is still active in the winter and tend to live in dwellings with their blood meals, this can result in multiple infections in the same household. [9]

Control

In the past, measures such as introducing fish and insect species that prey on A. atroparvus to water bodies has been used to decrease the presence of the malaria vector. [6] [8] [2] [14] Household measures were also introduced and effectively reduced malaria contraction via reduction in A. atroparvus populations. this included indoor DDT insecticide sprays and bug nets for windows and doors. [4] [2] Through both intentional control of A. atroparvus and other factors such as pollution to A. atroparvus breeding grounds in the Netherlands, the decrease of this vector species led to the elimination of malaria from Europe. [6] [4] although primarily research suggests that climate change would serve to increase A. atroparvus populations, there are also implications that it may instead adversely affect populations by reducing water bodies and rainfall that are required for reproduction. [2] There is also concern over vector control as A. atroparvus could become infected with Plasmodium species that have been imported from areas where malaria is more abundant. [6]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mosquito</span> Family of flies

Mosquitoes, the Culicidae, are a family of small flies consisting of 3,600 species. The word mosquito is Spanish and Portuguese for little fly. Mosquitoes have a slender segmented body, one pair of wings, three pairs of long hair-like legs, and specialized, highly elongated, piercing-sucking mouthparts. All mosquitoes drink nectar from flowers; females of some species have in addition adapted to drink blood. Evolutionary biologists view mosquitoes as micropredators, small animals that parasitise larger ones by drinking their blood without immediately killing them. Medical parasitologists view mosquitoes instead as vectors of disease, carrying protozoan parasites or bacterial or viral pathogens from one host to another.

<i>Anopheles</i> Genus of mosquito

Anopheles is a genus of mosquito first described by J. W. Meigen in 1818, and are known as nail mosquitoes and marsh mosquitoes. Many such mosquitoes are vectors of the parasite Plasmodium, a genus of protozoans that cause malaria in birds, reptiles, and mammals, including humans. The Anopheles gambiae mosquito is the best-known species of marsh mosquito that transmits the Plasmodium falciparum, which is a malarial parasite deadly to human beings; no other mosquito genus is a vector of human malaria.

<i>Anopheles gambiae</i> Species of mosquito

The Anopheles gambiae complex consists of at least seven morphologically indistinguishable species of mosquitoes in the genus Anopheles. The complex was recognised in the 1960s and includes the most important vectors of malaria in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly of the most dangerous malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. It is one of the most efficient malaria vectors known. The An. gambiae mosquito additionally transmits Wuchereria bancrofti which causes lymphatic filariasis, a symptom of which is elephantiasis.

Avian malaria is a parasitic disease of birds, caused by parasite species belonging to the genera Plasmodium and Hemoproteus. The disease is transmitted by a dipteran vector including mosquitoes in the case of Plasmodium parasites and biting midges for Hemoproteus. The range of symptoms and effects of the parasite on its bird hosts is very wide, from asymptomatic cases to drastic population declines due to the disease, as is the case of the Hawaiian honeycreepers. The diversity of parasites is large, as it is estimated that there are approximately as many parasites as there are species of hosts. As research on human malaria parasites became difficult, Dr. Ross studied avian malaria parasites. Co-speciation and host switching events have contributed to the broad range of hosts that these parasites can infect, causing avian malaria to be a widespread global disease, found everywhere except Antarctica.

<i>Anopheles walkeri</i> Species of mosquito

Anopheles walkeri is a species of mosquito found predominantly throughout the Mississippi River Valley, with its habitat ranging as far north as southern Quebec, Canada. The eggs of A. walkeri are laid directly on the water surface in freshwater swamp habitats. Since its eggs are not resistant to desiccation, this species is restricted to swampy regions with plenty of water. Anopheles walkeri, as with many other anophelines, begins to become active later in the evening than most other mosquito species in its range. This species becomes especially active late at night when in search of a blood meal. Feeding activity is affected greatly by environmental conditions within its microclimate. Wind, low humidity and cool temperatures, are all negatively correlated with feeding aggression.

<i>Anopheles albimanus</i> Species of mosquito

Anopheles albimanus is a species of mosquito in the order Diptera. It is found in coastal Central and South America, the Caribbean, and Mexico. It is a generalist species and capable of wide dispersion. A. albimanus is a common malaria vector.

<i>Anopheles stephensi</i> Species of fly

Anopheles stephensi is a primary mosquito vector of malaria in urban India and is included in the same subgenus as Anopheles gambiae, the primary malaria vector in Africa. A. gambiae consists of a complex of morphologically identical species of mosquitoes, along with all other major malaria vectors; however, A. stephensi has not yet been included in any of these complexes. Nevertheless, two races of A. stephensi exist based on differences in egg dimensions and the number of ridges on the eggs; A. s. stephensisensu stricto, the type form, is a competent malaria vector that takes place in urban areas, and A. s. mysorensis, the variety form, exists in rural areas and exhibits considerable zoophilic behaviour, making it a poor malaria vector. However, A. s. mysorensis is a detrimental vector in Iran. An intermediate form also exists in rural communities and peri-urban areas, though its vector status is unknown. About 12% of malaria cases in India are due to A. stephensi.

<i>Anopheles darlingi</i> Species of fly

Anopheles darlingi, the American malaria mosquito, is a species of mosquito in the family Culicidae. A. darlingi is one of the major species of mosquito known to be responsible for malaria in the Amazonian regions. It has a wide range of geographic distribution that stretches from Mexico and Argentina but it has also been found to populate in areas affected by deforestation and environment changes due to humans.

<i>Anopheles claviger</i> Species of mosquito

Anopheles claviger is a mosquito species found in Palearctic realm covering Europe, North Africa, northern Arabian Peninsula, and northern Asia. It is responsible for transmitting malaria in some of these regions. The mosquito is made up of a species complex consisting of An. claviger sensu stricto and An. petragnani Del Vecchio. An. petragnani is found only in western Mediterranean region, and is reported to bite only animals; hence, it is not involved in human malaria.

<i>Anopheles sinensis</i> Species of mosquito

Anopheles sinensis is a species of mosquito that transmits malaria as well as lymphatic filariasis. It is regarded as the most important vector of these human parasitic diseases in Southeast Asia. It is the primary vector of vivax malaria in many regions. In China it also transmits the filalarial parasite, and arthropod roundworm. In Japan it is also a vector of a roundworm Setaria digitata in sheep and goats.

Anopheles nili is a species of mosquito in the Culicidae family. It comprises the following elements: An. carnevalei, An. nili, An. ovengensis and An. somalicus. The scientific name of this species was first published in 1904 by Theobald. It is the main mosquito species found in the south Cameroon forest zone which bites humans. It is known as a problematic carrier of malaria, although newly discovered, closely related species in the same genus have also been found to interact with A. nili as a disease vector. In that, they both have similar feeding habits on local targets in the Cameroon region.

Lutzia fuscana is a mosquito that is predatory in its larval stages. It has been investigated as a possible biological control agent, showing some promise where vector species share limited or specific breeding habitat.

<i>Anopheles barbirostris</i> Species of fly

Anopheles barbirostris is a species complex of mosquito belonging to the genus Anopheles. Larvae found in clean, lotic bodies of water. Females are zoophilic, mainly feed blood on cattle and humans. It is also an important vector for Plasmodium falciparum in Sri Lanka and Timor, for both Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum in Bangladesh.

Anopheles barbumbrosus is a species complex of mosquito belonging to the genus Anopheles. It has 12-36 thin attenuated branches usually loose and separated out, which is a good indication to separate it from A. barbirostris. It shows a marked zoophilic tendency, thus is a malaria vector, but with minor importance to humans. It is distributed throughout Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Thailand, India and Sri Lanka, They mostly live as an outdoor mosquito species, rarely found indoor places. Larva can be found in a variety of habitats including both partially shaded and sunlit fresh and slowly running water, grass-fringed streams to stagnant water pools and man-made places like rice fields.

Anopheles (Cellia) karwari is a species complex of zoophilic mosquito belonging to the genus Anopheles. It is found in India, and Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Sumatra, and Java. A. karwari is a member of the Maculatus Group and the second scarcest species reported from Indonesia. Female is blood sucking and involved in transmitting Plasmodium falciparum, thus an important malarial vector. It is considered a secondary vector in the Australian region, but its vectorial status in South-East Asia was unknown.

Anopheles (Cellia) tessellatus is a species complex of zoophilic mosquito belonging to the genus Anopheles. It is found in India, and Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Laos, Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam. It is first described from Sri Lanka. Larvae are known to found from dirty stagnant water in sun or shady habitats. Adults are zoophilic. It is not regarded as a malaria vector, but is a secondary vector of Wuchereria bancrofti in Maldives.

Anopheles (Cellia) vagus is a species complex of zoophilic mosquito belonging to the genus Anopheles. It is found in India, Sri Lanka and Indonesia. It is a potential natural vector of malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum, and Japanese encephalitis virus. It is highly susceptible to insecticide deltamethrin and resistant to DDT.

Anopheles (Cellia) varuna is a species complex of zoophilic mosquito belonging to the genus Anopheles. It is found in India, Sri Lanka Thailand and Vietnam. It is a secondary malaria vector in Sri Lanka. Larvae are known to feed on detritus, rod and cocci bacteria, diatom, filamentous algae and desmids. A microsporidium Thelohania obscura was discovered from the larvae in India in 1966.

<i>Anopheles freeborni</i> Species of Mosquito

Anopheles freeborni, commonly known as the western malaria mosquito, is a species of mosquito in the family Culicidae. It is typically found in the western United States and Canada. Adults are brown to black, with yellow-brown hairs and gray-brown stripes on the thorax. Their scaly wings have four dark spots, which are less distinct in the male.

<i>Anopheles funestus</i> Species of insect

Anopheles funestus is a species of mosquito in the Culicidae family. This species was first described in 1900 by Giles. The female is attracted to houses where it seeks out humans in order to feed on their blood, mostly during the night. This mosquito is a major vector of malaria in sub-Saharan Africa.

References

  1. ↑ Harbach, R. E. (2013). The phylogeny and classification of Anopheles. In Anopheles mosquitoes-new insights into malaria vectors. IntechOpen.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Takken, W., Geene, R., Adam, W., Jetten, T. H., & van der Velden, J. A. (2002). Distribution and dynamics of larval populations of Anopheles messeae and A. atroparvus in the delta of the rivers Rhine and Meuse, The Netherlands. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 31(3), 212-218
  3. 1 2 3 4 Talbalaghi, A., & Shaikevich, E. (2011). Molecular approach for identification of mosquito species (Diptera: Culicidae) in Province of Alessandria, Piedmont, Italy. European Journal of Entomology, 108(1), 35.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Vicente, J. L., Sousa, C. A., Alten, B., Caglar, S. S., Falcutá, E., Latorre, J. M., ... & Toma, L. (2011). Genetic and phenotypic variation of the malaria vector Anopheles atroparvus in southern Europe. Malaria journal, 10(1), 5
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Birnberg, L., Aranda, C., Talavera, S., Núñez, A. I., Escosa, R., & Busquets, N. (2020). Laboratory colonization and maintenance of Anopheles atroparvus from the Ebro Delta, Spain. Parasites & Vectors, 13(1), 1-5
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 5. Capinha, C., Gomes, E., Reis, E., Rocha, J., Sousa, C. A., Do Rosario, V. E., & Almeida, A. P. (2009). Present habitat suitability for Anopheles atroparvus (Diptera, Culicidae) and its coincidence with former malaria areas in mainland Portugal. Geospatial health, 177-187.
  7. ↑ [https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/disease-vectors/facts/mosquito-factsheets/anopheles-atroparvus#:~:text=Aquatic%2Fterrestrial%20habitat,or%20floating%20vegetation%20%5B1%5D.> "Anopheles atroparvus- Factsheet for experts"]. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. 2014.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Roiz, D., Ruiz, S., Soriguer, R., & Figuerola, J. (2015). Landscape effects on the presence, abundance and diversity of mosquitoes in Mediterranean wetlands. PLoS One, 10(6), e0128112.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Gowland, R. L., & Western, A. G. (2012). Morbidity in the marshes: Using spatial epidemiology to investigate skeletal evidence for malaria in Anglo‐Saxon England (AD 410–1050). American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 147(2), 301-311.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Ponçon, N., Toty, C., L'Ambert, G., Le Goff, G., Brengues, C., Schaffner, F., & Fontenille, D. (2007). Biology and dynamics of potential malaria vectors in Southern France. Malaria Journal, 6(1), 18
  11. ↑ Hemingway, J. (1982). Genetics of organophosphate and carbamate resistance in Anopheles atroparvus (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of economic entomology, 75(6), 1055-1058.
  12. 1 2 3 Cailly, P., Balenghien, T., Ezanno, P., Fontenille, D., Toty, C., & Tran, A. (2011). Role of the repartition of wetland breeding sites on the spatial distribution of Anopheles and Culex, human disease vectors in Southern France. Parasites & vectors, 4(1), 65
  13. 1 2 Falcuta, E., Prioteasa, F. L., & Nicolescu, G. (2008). Investigations of the anopheline (Diptera: Culicidae) fauna from three areas belonging to the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve in order to evaluate the risk of malaria re-emergence. Danube Delta National Institute Scientific Annals, 14, 15-20.
  14. ↑ Brugman, V. A., Hernández-Triana, L. M., England, M. E., Medlock, J. M., Mertens, P. P., Logan, J. G., ... & Carpenter, S. (2017). Blood-feeding patterns of native mosquitoes and insights into their potential role as pathogen vectors in the Thames estuary region of the United Kingdom. Parasites & vectors, 10(1), 163.
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