Anti-transglutaminase antibodies

Last updated
Autoantibody
Anti-transglutaminase
Common autoantibody characteristics
Autoantibody classIgA, IgG
DQ2.5
HLA associations DQ8
DQ2.2/DQ7.5
Associated T-Cell
restrictions		 DQ/gliadin, DQ/deamidated-gliadin
Triggering
agent(s)		 Triticeae glutens (Prolamins and Glutelins)
Isoform specific
autoantibody characteristics
Autoantigen
Isoform		Tissue transglutaminase
Autoantigen Gene TGM2
Affected Organ(s)Intestine (small)
Affected Tissue(s)Villi
Affected Cells(s)Epithelial Cells
Also AffectedEpithelial matrix
Associated
Disease(s)		 Celiac disease
Triggering
agent		& Gastrointestinal viruses
Autoantigen
Isoform		Epidermal transglutaminase
Autoantigen Gene TGM3
Affected Organ(s)Skin
Associated
Disease(s)		 Dermatitis herpetiformis

Anti-transglutaminase antibodies (ATA) are autoantibodies against the transglutaminase protein. Antibodies serve an important role in the immune system by detecting cells and substances that the rest of the immune system then eliminates. These cells and substances can be foreign (for example, viruses) and also can be produced by the body (for example, cancer cells). Antibodies against the body's own products are called autoantibodies. Autoantibodies can sometimes errantly be directed against healthy portions of the organism, causing autoimmune diseases.

Contents

ATA can be classified according to 2 different schemes: transglutaminase isoform and immunoglobulin reactivity subclass (IgA, IgG) toward transglutaminases.

Transglutaminase isoform reactivity

transglutaminase Tissue transglutaminase.png
transglutaminase

Anti-tissue transglutaminase

Antibodies to tissue transglutaminase (abbreviated as anti-tTG or anti-TG2) are found in patients with several conditions, including celiac disease, juvenile diabetes, [1] inflammatory bowel disease, [2] and various forms of arthritis. [3] [4]

In celiac disease, ATA are involved in the destruction of the villous extracellular matrix and target the destruction of intestinal villous epithelial cells by killer cells. Deposits of anti-tTG in the intestinal epithelium predict celiac disease. [5]

Anti-endomysial reactivity

The endomysium is a layer of connective tissue that ensheaths a muscle fiber. The endomysium contains a form of transglutaminase called "tissue transglutaminase" or "tTG" for short, and antibodies that bind to this form of transglutaminase are called endomysial autoantibodies (EmA). [6] The antiendomysial antibody test is a histological assay for patient serum binding to esophageal tissue from primate. EmA are present in celiac disease. They do not cause any direct symptoms to muscles, but detection of EmA is useful in the diagnosis of the disease. [7]

Anti-epidermal transglutaminase

Antibodies to epidermal transglutaminase (eTG, also keratinocyte transglutaminase) are the autoantibodies believed to cause dermatitis herpetiformis. [8]

Immunoglobin subclass

ATA IgA are more frequently found in Celiac Disease (CD); however, ATA IgG are found in CD and at higher levels when affected individual had the IgA-less phenotype. The IgA-less phenotype is more common in CD than the normal population; however, one haplotype, DQ2.5 is found in most CD, has genetic linkage to the IgA-less gene location.

Associated conditions

Celiac disease

Most attention to anti-transglutaminase antibodies is given with respect to celiac disease. A recent study of children published in 2007 demonstrated that the level of ATA in correlates with the scalar Marsh score for the disease in the same patient. [9]

High levels (titers) of ATA are found in almost all instances of celiac disease. [10] Given the association of ATA with celiac disease, and the prevalence of the latter, it is estimated that ~1% of the population have potentially pathogenic levels of ATA.

Inflammatory bowel disease

A study published in Nature in 2001 found high levels of anti-transglutaminase antibodies in inflammatory bowel disease, specifically in Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. [2]

Arthritis

Studies of patients with various forms of arthritis showed highly increased frequencies of antibodies against guinea pig transglutaminase, human recombinant transglutaminase and peptidylarginine deiminase type 4 (PAD4). This suggests a potential for crossreactive antibodies between anti-tTG and anti-PAD4. [11]

Type 1 Diabetes, previously known as Juvenile diabetes and anti-tTG

Childhood (male) type 1 diabetes (T1D) increases the risk for CD and vice versa [12] and the early signs of celiac disease may precede T1D in many cases. [13] A search for CD in juvenile diabetes patients revealed that a gluten-free diet resulted in some improvements. [14] An elevated number of diabetes patients have ATA [15] along with increased numbers of gluten-specific T-cells.

Asymptomatic ATA+

A recent screening [16] of 7550 Britons found 87 undetected ATA+. In this study a 50% increase of ATA was associated with:

Similar studies:

Symptomatic ATA+

Alcohol consumption

ATA correlated with biomarkers of alcohol consumption, proinflammatory cytokines and markers of fibrogenesis. [20]

Mechanism of autoimmunity

The antibodies to tissue transglutaminase follow a complex pathway of generation. For most antigens, T-cells specific to those antigens develop; for autoimmunity, either autoreactive T-cells are not suppressed, or antigens escape the protective process. T-cells are stimulated by antigen, presented by MHC molecules (HLA in humans) on antigen-reactive B-cells. These T-helper cells then stimulate B-cells to multiply and mature into plasma cells that make IgA and IgG to that protein.

In the case of celiac disease, the current understanding is that tTG autoimmunity arises when T-cells are generated against wheat gliadin and similar gluten proteins made by a class of grasses called Triticeae , which includes wheat (See Wheat taxonomy), barley, and rye. The T-cells are defined by the ability to react to HLA-DQ8 and DQ2.5 restricted antigens and gliadin is one of the antigens. Gliadin is a favored dietary substrate for transglutaminase because of many enzyme reaction sites on gliadin. In disease, transglutaminase reacts with gliadin forming a linkage. [21] In forming this bond transglutaminase becomes linked to T-cell epitopes on gliadin. B-cells with surface IgM that react to transglutaminase can present it with bound gliadin peptides to T-cells which stimulate B-cell maturation and proliferation to plasma cells making IgA or IgM.

ATA changes the behavior of tTG. Some studies have revealed that antibodies increase the activity of tTG, instead of inhibiting activity as is commonly encountered with function-altering antibodies. A recent study has shown that ATA also modify and increase replication in intestinal epithelial Cells, by apparently interacting with cell-surface transglutaminase. [22]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coeliac disease</span> Autoimmune disorder that results in a reaction to gluten

Coeliac disease or celiac disease is a long-term autoimmune disorder, primarily affecting the small intestine, where individuals develop intolerance to gluten, present in foods such as wheat, rye and barley. Classic symptoms include gastrointestinal problems such as chronic diarrhoea, abdominal distention, malabsorption, loss of appetite, and among children failure to grow normally. This often begins between six months and two years of age. Non-classic symptoms are more common, especially in people older than two years. There may be mild or absent gastrointestinal symptoms, a wide number of symptoms involving any part of the body, or no obvious symptoms. Coeliac disease was first described in childhood; however, it may develop at any age. It is associated with other autoimmune diseases, such as Type 1 diabetes mellitus and Hashimoto's thyroiditis, among others.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Autoimmunity</span> Immune response against an organisms own healthy cells

In immunology, autoimmunity is the system of immune responses of an organism against its own healthy cells, tissues and other normal body constituents. Any disease resulting from this type of immune response is termed an "autoimmune disease". Prominent examples include celiac disease, post-infectious IBS, diabetes mellitus type 1, Henoch–Schönlein purpura (HSP) sarcoidosis, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), Sjögren syndrome, eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Graves' disease, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura, Addison's disease, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), ankylosing spondylitis, polymyositis (PM), dermatomyositis (DM), and multiple sclerosis (MS). Autoimmune diseases are very often treated with steroids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Immunoglobulin A</span> Antibody that plays a crucial role in the immune function of mucous membranes

Immunoglobulin A is an antibody that plays a role in the immune function of mucous membranes. The amount of IgA produced in association with mucosal membranes is greater than all other types of antibody combined. In absolute terms, between three and five grams are secreted into the intestinal lumen each day. This represents up to 15% of total immunoglobulins produced throughout the body.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody</span> Group of autoantibodies

Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCAs) are a group of autoantibodies, mainly of the IgG type, against antigens in the cytoplasm of neutrophils and monocytes. They are detected as a blood test in a number of autoimmune disorders, but are particularly associated with systemic vasculitis, so called ANCA-associated vasculitides (AAV).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gliadin</span>

Gliadin is a class of proteins present in wheat and several other cereals within the grass genus Triticum. Gliadins, which are a component of gluten, are essential for giving bread the ability to rise properly during baking. Gliadins and glutenins are the two main components of the gluten fraction of the wheat seed. This gluten is found in products such as wheat flour. Gluten is split about evenly between the gliadins and glutenins, although there are variations found in different sources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tissue transglutaminase</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Tissue transglutaminase is a 78-kDa, calcium-dependent enzyme of the protein-glutamine γ-glutamyltransferases family. Like other transglutaminases, it crosslinks proteins between an ε-amino group of a lysine residue and a γ-carboxamide group of glutamine residue, creating an inter- or intramolecular bond that is highly resistant to proteolysis. Aside from its crosslinking function, tTG catalyzes other types of reactions including deamidation, GTP-binding/hydrolyzing, and isopeptidase activities. Unlike other members of the transglutaminase family, tTG can be found both in the intracellular and the extracellular spaces of various types of tissues and is found in many different organs including the heart, the liver, and the small intestine. Intracellular tTG is abundant in the cytosol but smaller amounts can also be found in the nucleus and the mitochondria. Intracellular tTG is thought to play an important role in apoptosis. In the extracellular space, tTG binds to proteins of the extracellular matrix (ECM), binding particularly tightly to fibronectin. Extracellular tTG has been linked to cell adhesion, ECM stabilization, wound healing, receptor signaling, cellular proliferation, and cellular motility.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wheat allergy</span> Medical condition

Wheat allergy is an allergy to wheat which typically presents itself as a food allergy, but can also be a contact allergy resulting from occupational exposure. Like all allergies, wheat allergy involves immunoglobulin E and mast cell response. Typically the allergy is limited to the seed storage proteins of wheat. Some reactions are restricted to wheat proteins, while others can react across many varieties of seeds and other plant tissues. Wheat allergy is rare. Prevalence in adults was found to be 0.21% in a 2012 study in Japan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gluten-related disorders</span> Set of diseases caused by gluten exposure

Gluten-related disorders is the term for the diseases triggered by gluten, including celiac disease (CD), non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS), gluten ataxia, dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) and wheat allergy. The umbrella category has also been referred to as gluten intolerance, though a multi-disciplinary physician-led study, based in part on the 2011 International Coeliac Disease Symposium, concluded that the use of this term should be avoided due to a lack of specificity.

Gluten-sensitive enteropathy–associated conditions are comorbidities or complications of gluten-related gastrointestinal distress. GSE has key symptoms typically restricted to the bowel and associated tissues; however, there are a wide variety of associated conditions. These include bowel disorders, eosinophilic gastroenteritis and increase with coeliac disease (CD) severity. With some early onset and a large percentage of late onset disease, other disorders appear prior to the coeliac diagnosis or allergic-like responses markedly increased in GSE. Many of these disorders persist on a strict gluten-free diet, and are thus independent of coeliac disease after triggering. For example, autoimmune thyroiditis is a common finding with GSE.

Anti-gliadin antibodies are produced in response to gliadin, a prolamin found in wheat. In bread wheat it is encoded by three different alleles, AA, BB, and DD. These alleles can produce slightly different gliadins, which can cause the body to produce different antibodies. Some of these antibodies can detect proteins in specific grass taxa such as Triticeae, while others react sporadically with certain species in those taxa, or over many taxonomically defined grass tribes.

Anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae antibodies (ASCAs) are antibodies against antigens presented by the cell wall of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. These antibodies are directed against oligomannose sequences α-1,3 Man n. ASCAs and perinuclear antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (pANCAs) are the two most useful and often discriminating biomarkers for colitis. ASCA tends to recognize Crohn's disease more frequently, whereas pANCA tend to recognize ulcerative colitis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HLA-DQ2</span>

HLA-DQ2 (DQ2) is a serotype group within HLA-DQ (DQ) serotyping system. The serotype is determined by the antibody recognition of β2 subset of DQ β-chains. The β-chain of DQ is encoded by HLA-DQB1 locus and DQ2 are encoded by the HLA-DQB1*02 allele group. This group currently contains two common alleles, DQB1*0201 and DQB1*0202. HLA-DQ2 and HLA-DQB1*02 are almost synonymous in meaning. DQ2 β-chains combine with α-chains, encoded by genetically linked HLA-DQA1 alleles, to form the cis-haplotype isoforms. These isoforms, nicknamed DQ2.2 and DQ2.5, are also encoded by the DQA1*0201 and DQA1*0501 genes, respectively.

Antiganglioside antibodies that react to self-gangliosides are found in autoimmune neuropathies. These antibodies were first found to react with cerebellar cells. These antibodies show highest association with certain forms of Guillain–Barré syndrome.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Enteropathy-associated T-cell lymphoma</span> Complication of coeliac disease

Enteropathy-associated T-cell lymphoma (EATL), previously termed enteropathy-associated T-cell lymphoma, type I and at one time termed enteropathy-type T-cell lymphoma (ETTL), is a complication of coeliac disease in which a malignant T-cell lymphoma develops in areas of the small intestine affected by the disease's intense inflammation. While a relatively rare disease, it is the most common type of primary gastrointestinal T-cell lymphoma.

Oat sensitivity represents a sensitivity to the proteins found in oats, Avena sativa. Sensitivity to oats can manifest as a result of allergy to oat seed storage proteins either inhaled or ingested. A more complex condition affects individuals who have gluten-sensitive enteropathy in which there is an autoimmune response to avenin, the glutinous protein in oats similar to the gluten within wheat. Sensitivity to oat foods can also result from their frequent contamination by wheat, barley, or rye particles.

The immunochemistry of Triticeae glutens is important in several inflammatory diseases. It can be subdivided into innate responses, class II mediated presentation, class I mediated stimulation of killer cells, and antibody recognition. The responses to gluten proteins and polypeptide regions differs according to the type of gluten sensitivity. The response is also dependent on the genetic makeup of the human leukocyte antigen genes. In gluten sensitive enteropathy, there are four types of recognition, innate immunity, HLA-DQ, and antibody recognition of gliadin and transglutaminase. With idiopathic gluten sensitivity only antibody recognition to gliadin has been resolved. In wheat allergy, the response pathways are mediated through IgE against other wheat proteins and other forms of gliadin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dermatitis herpetiformis</span> Medical condition

Dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) is a chronic autoimmune blistering skin condition, characterised by intensely itchy blisters filled with a watery fluid. DH is a cutaneous manifestation of coeliac disease, although the exact causal mechanism is not known. DH is neither related to nor caused by herpes virus; the name means that it is a skin inflammation having an appearance similar to herpes.

Non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS) or gluten sensitivity is a controversial disorder which can cause both gastrointestinal and other problems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intestinal mucosal barrier</span>

The intestinal mucosal barrier, also referred to as intestinal barrier, refers to the property of the intestinal mucosa that ensures adequate containment of undesirable luminal contents within the intestine while preserving the ability to absorb nutrients. The separation it provides between the body and the gut prevents the uncontrolled translocation of luminal contents into the body proper. Its role in protecting the mucosal tissues and circulatory system from exposure to pro-inflammatory molecules, such as microorganisms, toxins, and antigens is vital for the maintenance of health and well-being. Intestinal mucosal barrier dysfunction has been implicated in numerous health conditions such as: food allergies, microbial infections, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, celiac disease, metabolic syndrome, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, diabetes, and septic shock.

Ludvig M. Sollid is a Norwegian physician-scientist whose laboratory has made discoveries in the pathogenesis of HLA associated human disorders, most notably celiac disease. He is currently a Professor of Medicine (immunology) at the University of Oslo and a Senior Consultant at Oslo University Hospital.

References

  1. ↑ Krause, I; Anaya, JM; Fraser, A; Barzilai, O; Ram, M; Abad, V; Arango, A; García, J; Shoenfeld, Y (2009). "Anti-infectious antibodies and autoimmune-associated autoantibodies in patients with type I diabetes mellitus and their close family members". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1173 (1): 633–9. Bibcode:2009NYASA1173..633K. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04619.x. PMID   19758209. S2CID   11261222.
  2. 1 2 Farrace, MG; Picarelli, A; Di Tola, M; Sabbatella, L; Marchione, OP; Ippolito, G; Piacentini, M (Jul 2001). "Presence of anti-"tissue" transglutaminase antibodies in inflammatory intestinal diseases: an apoptosis-associated event?". Cell Death & Differentiation. 8 (7): 767–70. doi: 10.1038/sj.cdd.4400880 . PMID   11464221.
  3. ↑ Teichmann, Joachim; Voglau, Marcus J.; Lange, Uwe (13 October 2009). "Antibodies to human tissue transglutaminase and alterations of vitamin D metabolism in ankylosing spondylitis and psoriatic arthritis" (PDF). Rheumatology International. 30 (12): 1559–1563. doi:10.1007/s00296-009-1186-y. PMID   19823832. S2CID   28299599.
  4. ↑ Picarelli, A; Di Tola, M; Sabbatella, L; Vetrano, S; Anania, MC; Spadaro, A; Sorgi, ML; Taccari, E (Dec 2003). "Anti-tissue transglutaminase antibodies in arthritic patients: a disease-specific finding?". Clinical Chemistry. 49 (12): 2091–4. doi: 10.1373/clinchem.2003.023234 . PMID   14633886.
  5. ↑ Kaukinen K, Peraaho M, Collin P, Partanen J, Woolley N, Kaartinen T, Nuuntinen T, Halttunen T, Maki M, Korponay-Szabo I (2005). "Small-bowel mucosal tranglutaminase 2-specific IgA deposits in coeliac disease without villous atrophy: A Prospective and radmonized clinical study". Scand J Gastroenterol. 40 (5): 564–572. doi:10.1080/00365520510023422. PMID   16036509. S2CID   27068601.
  6. ↑ Salmi T, Collin P, Korponay-Szabó I, Laurila K, Partanen J, Huhtala H, Király R, Lorand L, Reunala T, Mäki M, Kaukinen K (2006). "Endomysial antibody‐negative coeliac disease: clinical characteristics and intestinal autoantibody deposits". Gut. 55 (12): 1746–53. doi:10.1136/gut.2005.071514. PMC   1856451 . PMID   16571636.
  7. ↑ Pruessner HT (March 1998). "Detecting celiac disease in your patients". Am Fam Physician. 57 (5): 1023–34, 1039–41. PMID   9518950. Archived from the original on 2011-10-20. Retrieved 2010-08-03.
  8. ↑ Hull CM, Liddle M, Hansen N, et al. (May 2008). "Elevation of IgA anti-epidermal transglutaminase antibodies in dermatitis herpetiformis". Br. J. Dermatol. 159 (1): 120–4. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.2008.08629.x. PMID   18503599. S2CID   21374261.
  9. ↑ Donaldson MR, Firth SD, Wimpee H, et al. (2007). "Correlation of duodenal histology with tissue transglutaminase and endomysial antibody levels in pediatric celiac disease". Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 5 (5): 567–73. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2007.01.003. PMID   17428743.
  10. ↑ Dieterich W, Ehnis T, Bauer M, Donner P, Volta U, Riecken E, Schuppan D (1997). "Identification of tissue transglutaminase as the autoantigen of celiac disease". Nat Med. 3 (7): 797–801. doi:10.1038/nm0797-797. PMID   9212111. S2CID   20033968.
  11. ↑ Roth EB, Stenberg P, Book C, Sjöberg K (2006). "Antibodies against transglutaminases, peptidylarginine deiminase and citrulline in rheumatoid arthritis--new pathways to epitope spreading". Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. 24 (1): 12–8. PMID   16539813.
  12. ↑ Lampasona V, Bonfanti R, Bazzigaluppi E, Venerando A, Chiumello G, Bosi E, Bonifacio E (1999). "Antibodies to tissue transglutaminase C in type I diabetes". Diabetologia. 42 (10): 1195–1198. doi: 10.1007/s001250051291 . PMID   10525659.
  13. ↑ Ludvigsson J, Ludvigsson J, Ekbom A, Montgomery S (2006). "Celiac disease and risk of subsequent type 1 diabetes: a general population cohort study of children and adolescents". Diabetes Care. 29 (11): 2483–8. doi: 10.2337/dc06-0794 . PMID   17065689.
  14. ↑ Hansen D, Brock-Jacobsen B, Lund E, Bjørn C, Hansen L, Nielsen C, Fenger C, Lillevang S, Husby S (2006). "Clinical benefit of a gluten-free diet in type 1 diabetic children with screening-detected celiac disease: a population-based screening study with 2 years' follow-up". Diabetes Care. 29 (11): 2452–6. doi: 10.2337/dc06-0990 . PMID   17065683.
  15. ↑ Bao F, Yu L, Babu S, Wang T, Hoffenberg EJ, Rewers M, Eisenbarth GS (1999). "One third of HLA DQ2 homozygous patients with type 1 diabetes express celiac disease-associated transglutaminase autoantibodies". J. Autoimmun. 13 (1): 143–148. doi:10.1006/jaut.1999.0303. PMID   10441179.
  16. ↑ West J, Logan RF, Hill PG, Khaw KT (2007). "The iceberg of celiac disease: what is below the waterline?". Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 5 (1): 59–62. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2006.10.020. PMID   17234556.
  17. ↑ Metzger MH, Heier M, Mäki M, et al. (2006). "Mortality excess in individuals with elevated IgA anti-transglutaminase antibodies: the KORA/MONICA Augsburg cohort study 1989-1998". Eur. J. Epidemiol. 21 (5): 359–65. doi:10.1007/s10654-006-9002-4. PMID   16649072. S2CID   31438746.
  18. ↑ Matà S, Renzi D, Pinto F, Calabrò A (2006). "Anti-tissue transglutaminase IgA antibodies in peripheral neuropathy and motor neuronopathy". Acta Neurol. Scand. 114 (1): 54–8. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0404.2006.00602.x. PMID   16774628. S2CID   32691295.
  19. ↑ Di Tola M, Sabbatella L, Anania MC, et al. (2004). "Anti-tissue transglutaminase antibodies in inflammatory bowel disease: new evidence". Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 42 (10): 1092–7. doi:10.1515/CCLM.2004.225. PMID   15552265. S2CID   46066640.
  20. ↑ Koivisto H, Hietala J, Anttila P, Niemelä O (2007). "Co-Occurrence of IgA Antibodies Against Ethanol Metabolites and Tissue Transglutaminase in Alcohol Consumers: Correlation with Proinflammatory Cytokines and Markers of Fibrogenesis". Digestive Diseases and Sciences. 53 (2): 500–5. doi:10.1007/s10620-007-9874-5. PMID   17597408. S2CID   27382605.
  21. ↑ Fleckenstein B, Qiao SW, Larsen MR, Jung G, Roepstorff P, Sollid LM (2004). "Molecular characterization of covalent complexes between tissue transglutaminase and gliadin peptides". J. Biol. Chem. 279 (17): 17607–16. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M310198200 . PMID   14747475.
  22. ↑ Barone MV, Caputo I, Ribecco MT, et al. (2007). "Humoral immune response to tissue transglutaminase is related to epithelial cell proliferation in celiac disease". Gastroenterology. 132 (4): 1245–53. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2007.01.030. PMID   17408665.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.