Arab conquest of Sindh

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Muslim conquest of Sindh
Part of Early Muslim conquests, Umayyad campaigns in India and Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent
Sindh 700ad.jpg
The country of Sindh in 700 AD
Date711-713 AD [1]
Location
Sindh, Punjab and Makran
(present-day Pakistan)
Result Umayyad victory
Territorial
changes
Belligerents
Umayyad Caliphate
Supported by:
Jats [2] 		Kingdom of Sindh
Supported by
Kiraj or Kurij kingdom [3]
Jats [4]
Commanders and leaders
Muhammad ibn Qasim
Ubaidullah  † [5]
Budail  † [6]
Mokah Basayah [2] 		Raja Dahir   †
Jaisimha  † [6] [5]
Casualties and losses
c. 22,000–42,000 killed
For detailed strength see Siege of Debal and Battle of Aror

The Muslim conquest of Sindh, also known as the Umayyad conquest of Sindh, took place between 711-713 AD in present-day Pakistan when the Umayyad Caliphate defeated the last Hindu dynasty of Sindh, the Brahmin dynasty, and incorporated Sindh (including Punjab and Makran) as a province, officially establishing the first Islamic entity in South Asia. [7] [ page needed ]

Contents

Early conflicts

Early Muslim presence

Expansion of Rashidun Caliphate (632-661 AD) Mohammad adil rais-Rashidun Caliphate-different phases.gif
Expansion of Rashidun Caliphate (632-661 AD)

The connection between the Hindu Sind and Islam was established by the initial Muslim missions during the Rashidun Caliphate. Hakim ibn Jabala al-Abdi, who attacked Makran in the year 649 AD, was an early partisan of Ali ibn Abu Talib. [8] During the caliphate of Ali, many Jats of Sindh had come under influence of Islam [9] and some even participated in the Battle of Camel and died fighting for Ali. [8] Harith ibn Murrah al-Abdi and Sayfi ibn Fasayl' al-Shaybani, both officers of Ali's army, attacked Makran in the year 658. [8] Sayfi was one of the seven shias who were beheaded alongside Hujr ibn Adi al-Kindi in 660 AD near Damascus. [8] Under the Umayyads (661–750 AD), many Shias sought asylum in the region of Sindh, to live in relative peace in the remote area. Ziyad Hindi is one of those refugees. [10] The only solid gain at that time was the conquest of Makran. [11]

Background

Although there was no connection between Arabia and Sindh, the war being started was due to events of piracy that plagued the Arabian Sea, at the time the Caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate offered Raja Dahir protection and sovereignty if he would help him in quelling the piracy.[ citation needed ] Raja Dahir of Sindh had refused to return Arab rebels from Sindh, [12] Meds and others. [13] Med pirates shipping from their bases at Kutch, Debal and Kathiawar. [13] Hostilities resumed between Sindh and Umayyads in 708 AD, when one of the pirate raid had kidnapped Muslim women traveling from Sri Lanka to Arabia near the port of Debal, [14] thus providing a casus belli [13] [15] against Sindhi King Dahir. [16] The Umayyad governor of Iraq, Al-Hajjaj wrote to Raja Dahir to set the women free. But Dahir expressed his inability to help retrieve the hostages. This gave Al-Hajjaj to sent expedition to Sindh. [17]

Invasion

Raids on Debal

Hajjaj first dispatched ‘Ubaidullah to raid across Debal but he was defeated and killed. Next an army was sent under Budail by way of sea from Oman. Budail received reinforcements and marched towards Debal where he was checked by Jaisimha, son of Dahir. A pitched battle ensued, lasting a whole day. At the end, the Muslim army was routed and Budail was killed. [5]

Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's expedition

Prelude

Finally Hajjaj appointed his seventeen year old nephew Muhammad ibn al-Qasim to conquer Sindh with the approval of the Caliph al-Walid I (r. 705–715). [18] [19] Al-Hajjaj equipped an army built around 6,000 Syrian cavalry and detachments of mawali from Iraq, [20] six thousand camelry, and a baggage train of 3,000 Bactrian camels under his nephew Muhammad bin Qasim to Sindh. More reinforcements arrived from the governor of Makran with five catapults (manj'neeqs) were sent to Debal by sea. [20]

Siege of Debal

Muhammad bin Qasim laid siege and successfully conquered Debal leaving 4,000 Muslims behind and built a mosque in the city. [5] The captive Muslim women were also released, and many prisoners were made while one-fifth of booty and slaves were sent to Al-Hajjaj. The chief of the Hindus of Debal converted to Islam and appointed as advisor of revenue officials. [2] Next Muhammad bin Qasim proceeded to Nerun (Hyderabad) and Siwistan (Sehwan) where the local Buddhist priets aligned with Muhammad bin Qasim against the local the governors who were routed and defeated. They also aided Umayyads with provisions and entered into friendly relation. [21] Mosques were built replacing idol-houses here too. [2]

Battle of Aror

Muhammad bin Qasim proceeded on the western bank of Indus River where some of the chiefs offered alliance. Mokah Basayah 'the king of Island of Bet' [2] deserted Dahir and promised to supply Muhammad with boats for crossing the Indus on receiving as reward a large stretch of the conquered territory. [5] The Thakurs of Bhatta and the ‘western Jats’ all paid homage (bay'ah) to the Arabs, joined them, and were posted on the island. [2] Muhammad bin Qasim was re-inforced by 2000 select horse sent by Hajjaj and 4000 warlike Jats from Siwistan. After two months of camping the Umayyads crossed the eastern bank of Indus and was joined by the brother of Mokah who helped him to cross the lake between the two armies. Dahir, supported by the chiefs of Sindh and 'eastern Jats' met the Umayyads at near Aror. [22] Dahir who was boarding elephant and struck by an arrow and killed. His son Jaisimha retreated to Brahmanabad in Sind leaving the queen behind at the fort of Aror. Muhammad promptly laid siege on the fort. The queen committed Jauhar alongside with the female at fort. Muhammad bin Qasim next marched to Brahmanabad. [4] Dahir’s head and the heads of ‘the chiefs of Hind’ were sent to Al-Hajjaj, with the fifth of the booty and slaves, including ‘those who were daughters of princes’. Al-Hajjaj delivered a sermon in the Great Mosque of Kufa declaring the conquest of Sindh. [23]

Conquest of Brahmanabad, Alor and Multan

Jaisimha fortified Brahmanabad as well as the capital city Alor. He led an army to disrupt Muhammad's supply lines. Jaisimha's chiefs minister joined Muhammad. After six-months' defense, Brahmanabad fell after some citizens entered a secret pact with the invading army. Muhammad then subdued other regions before capturing Alor after brief resistance. He then besieged Multan, which resisted for two months but surrendered due to treachery. [24]

Casualties

Where resistance was strong, prolonged, and intensive, often resulting in considerable Arab casualties, Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's response was dramatic, inflicting 6,000 deaths at Aror (Rohri), between 6,000 and 26,000 at Brahmanabad, 4,000 at Iskalandah (Uch), and 6,000 at Multan. [25] Conversely, in areas taken by sulh, such as Armabil, Nirun, and Aror, resistance was light and few casualties occurred. [25] Sulh appeared to be Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's preferred mode of conquest, the method used for more than 60% of the towns and tribes recorded by al-Baladhuri and the Chach Nama. [25] At one point, he was actually berated by Al-Hajjaj for being too lenient. [25] Meanwhile, the common folk were often pardoned and encouraged to continue working; [26] Al-Hajjaj ordered that this option not be granted to any inhabitant of Debal, yet Muhammad ibn al-Qasim still bestowed it upon certain groups and individuals. [25]

Hindu and Buddhist response

The majority of Sindh's population at the time of the Umayyad invasions was Hindu, but a significant minority adhered to Buddhism as well. [27]

Burjor Avari writes that it's likely that Buddhists collaborated and sided [28] [29] with the Arabs before the invasion even began, [30] [31] something that the primary sources describe as well. [32] [33] [31]

Soviet historian, Yu V. Gankovsky, writes that the Arab invasions were only made successful, because leaders of the Buddhist community of Sindh, despised and opposed the Brahmin ruler, hence sympathizing with the Arab invaders and even helping them in times. [34]

On the other hand, Hindu Brahmin resistance against the Arabs continued for much longer, both in upper Sindh and Multan. [35]

The eastern Hindu Jats supported the Sindhi king, Dahir, against the Arab invaders, whereas the western Jats aligned with Muhammad bin Qasim against Dahir. [36] Having settled the question of the freedom of religion and the social status of the Brahmins, Muhammad bin al-Qasim turned against the Jats and Lohanas. Chronicles such as the Chach Nama , Zainul-Akhbar and Tarikh-i Bayhaqi have recorded battles between Hindu Jats and forces of Muhammad ibn Qasim. [36]

Reasons for success

Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's success has been partly ascribed to Dahir being an unpopular Hindu king ruling over a Buddhist majority who saw Chach of Alor and his kin as usurpers of the Rai dynasty. [15] This is attributed to having resulted in support being provided by Buddhists and inclusion of rebel soldiers serving as valuable infantry in his cavalry-heavy force from the Jat and Meds. [37] Brahman, Buddhist, Greek, and Arab testimony however can be found that attests towards amicable relations between the adherents of the two religions up to the 7th century. [38]

Along with this were:

  1. Superior military equipment; such as siege engines and the Mongol bow. [15] [39]
  2. Troop discipline and leadership. [15]
  3. The concept of Jihad as a morale booster. [15]
  4. Religion, i.e. the widespread belief in the prophecy of Muslim success. [15] [38]
  5. The Samanis being persuaded to submit and not take up arms because the majority of the population was Buddhist who were dissatisfied with their rulers, who were Hindu. [38]
  6. The labouring under disabilities of the Lohana Jats. [38]
  7. Defections from among Dahir's chiefs and nobles. [38]

Aftermath

The motive of the expedition was not to propagate Islam but to free the Muslim women captured off Debal. [40]

After conquering Brahmanabad, Muhammad co-opted the local Brahman elite, whom he held in esteem, re-appointing them to posts held under the Brahman dynasty and offering honours and awards to their religious leaders and scholars. [41] This arrangement with local Brahman elites resulted in the continued persecution of Buddhists, with Bin Qasim confirming the existing Brahman regulation forbidding them from wearing anything but coarse clothing and requiring them to always walk barefoot accompanied by dogs. [41]

Following his success in Sindh, Muhammad bin Qasim wrote to "the kings of al-Hind (India)", calling upon them to surrender and accept the faith of Islam. [42] He dispatched a force against al-Baylaman (Bhinmal), which is said to have offered submission. The Med people of Surast (Maitraka dynasty of Vallabhi) also made peace. [43] Bin Qasim then sent a cavalry of 10,000 to Kannauj, along with a decree from the Caliph. He went with an army to the prevailing frontier of Kashmir called Panj-Māhīyāt (in Western Punjab). [44] Nothing is known of the Kanauj expedition. The frontier of Kashmir might be what is referred to as al-Kiraj in later records (Kira Kingdom in present-day Kangra Valley, Himachal Pradesh), [45] which was subdued. [46]

Bin Qasim was recalled in 715 CE and died en route. Al-Baladhuri writes that, upon his departure, the kings of al-Hind had come back to their kingdoms. The period of Caliph Umar II (r. 717–720) was relatively peaceful. Umar invited the kings of "al-Hind" to convert to Islam and become his subjects, in return for which they would continue to remain kings. Hullishah of Sindh and other kings accepted the offer and adopted Arab names. [47]

The Umayyad conquest brought the region into the cosmopolitan network of Islam. Many Sindhi Muslims played an important part during the Islamic Golden Age; including Abu Mashar Sindhi and Abu Raja Sindhi. Famous jurist Abd al-Rahman al-Awza'i is also reported by Al-Dhahabi to be originally from Sindh. [48]

See also

References

  1. ↑ (Wink 2002a, p. 9)"Sind was added to the conquest in 711-713,…"
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Wink 2002a , p. 204
  3. ↑ Chachnamah An Ancient History Of Sindh || Australian Islamic Library.
  4. 1 2 Majumdar 1962 , p. 170
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Majumdar 1962 , p. 170
  6. 1 2 Kalichbeg (1900). "The Chachnamah An Ancient History Of Sindh". p. 71.
  7. ↑ Ahmed Asif, Manan (2016-09-19). A Book of Conquest: The Chachnama and Muslim Origins in South Asia. Harvard University Press. ISBN   9780674660113.
  8. 1 2 3 4 MacLean 1989 , p. 126
  9. ↑ S. A. A. Rizvi, "A socio-intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India", Volo. 1, pp. 138, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).
  10. ↑ S. A. N. Rezavi, "The Shia Muslims", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).
  11. ↑ Majumdar 1962 , p. 169
  12. ↑ El Hareir & M'Baye 2011 , pp. 604–605
  13. 1 2 3 Wink 2002b , p. 164
  14. ↑ Majumdar 1962 , pp. 169–170
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Gier, Nicholas F. (May 2006). From Mongols to Mughals: Religious Violence in India 9th-18th Centuries. Pacific Northwest Regional Meeting American Academy of Religion. Gonzaga University. Archived from the original on 8 November 2012.
  16. ↑ Berzin, Alexander. "The Historical Interaction between the Buddhist and Islamic Cultures before the Mongol Empire: First Muslim Incursion into the Indian Subcontinent". Study Buddhism. Retrieved 21 June 2016.
  17. ↑ Majumdar 1962 , p. 169-170; al-Balādhurī 1924 , p. 216
  18. ↑ "Page:HMElliotHistVol1.djvu/152 - Wikisource, the free online library". en.wikisource.org. p. 118. Retrieved 2024-06-19.
  19. ↑ Wink 2002a , p. 202
  20. 1 2 Wink 2002a , p. 203
  21. ↑ Majumdar 1962 , p. 170 "From Debal, Muhammad proceeded to Nerun which is represented by modern Haidarabad. The Buddhist priests there were already carrying on treasonable correspondence with Hajjaj, and now openly helped Muhammad with provisions. Muhammad then conquered many cities without any opposition and advanced to Siwistan (Sehwan). Here, too, the Buddhist fifth-columnists welcomed the Arabs and entered into a pact with them against their own governor, who was defeated and fled."
  22. ↑ Wink 2002a , p. 204 "Al- Qasim succeeded in crossing over to the eastern side of the Mihran by means of a bridge, in co-operation with Mokah Basayah, ‘the king of the island (stronghold) of Bet’, the Thakurs of Bhatta and the ‘western Jats’ who all paid homage (bay'a) to the Arabs, joined them, and were posted on the island. Dahir, at the decisive moment, was abandoned by the Arabs in his service. The king of Sind, joined by the chiefs and warriors of Sind and the ‘eastern Jats’, met the army of Islam near Ar-Rur,"
  23. ↑ Wink 2002a , p. 205
  24. ↑ Majumdar 1962 , pp. 170–171
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 MacLean 1989, pp. 22–29.
  26. ↑ Wink 2002a , pp. 204–206
  27. ↑ Malik, Jamal (October 31, 2008). Islam in South Asia: A Short History. BRILL. p. 40. ISBN   9789047441816 . Retrieved September 8, 2023. Sind's majority population followed Hindu traditions but a substantial minority was Buddhist.
  28. ↑ Nizam, Muhammad Huzaifa (January 15, 2023). "HOW THE INDUS VALLEY FED ISLAM'S GOLDEN AGE". DAWN. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved September 8, 2023. The mercantile Sindhi Buddhists largely cooperated with the Muslims both during and after the conquest
  29. ↑ Jabewal, Jagjit Singh (November 1, 2004). "The Arab conquest of Sindh and Ismaili missionary work". The Milli Gazette. Archived from the original on September 8, 2023. Retrieved September 8, 2023. There is overwhelming evidence suggesting Buddhist connivance in the Arab conquest of Sindh. They were not averse to the Arab conquest and they cooperated with the invaders.
  30. ↑ Avari, Burjor (2013). Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent. Routledge. p. 22. ISBN   9780415580618 . Retrieved September 8, 2023. It is quite likely therefore that some form of Buddhist collaboration with the Arabs may have begun even before the Arab invasion.
  31. 1 2 Maclean, Derryl N. (December 1, 1989). Religion And Society In Arab Sind. E.J. Brill. pp. 121–122. ISBN   9789004085510. Archived from the original on March 2, 2017. Retrieved September 9, 2023. Buddhists tended to collaborate to a significantly greater extent and at an earlier date than did Hindus.... Where the primary sources refer to religious affiliation, Buddhist communities (as opposed to individuals) are always (there is no exception) mentioned in terms of collaboration.... Furthermore, Buddhists generally collaborated early in the campaign before the major conquest of Sind had been achieved and even before the conquest of towns in which they were resident and which were held by strong garrisons.
  32. ↑ Sarao, K.T.S. (October 2017). "Buddhist-Muslim Encounter in Sind During the Eighth Century". Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute. 77. JSTOR: 77. JSTOR   26609161 . Retrieved September 8, 2023. The primary sources indicate that the Buddhists tended to collaborate with the invading Arabs at an early date
  33. ↑ Siddiqi, Iqtidar Husain (2010). Indo-Persian Historiography Up to the Thirteenth Century. Primus Books. p. 34. ISBN   9788190891806 . Retrieved September 8, 2023. At the time of the Arab invasion, the Buddhists repudiated their allegiance to Dahir and decided to cooperate with his enemy.
  34. ↑ Gankovsky, Yu. V.; Gavrilov, Igor (1973). "The Peoples of Pakistan: An Ethnic History" . The Journal of Asian Studies. 32 (2). Nauka Publishing House: 116–117. doi:10.2307/2052387. JSTOR   2052387 . Retrieved September 8, 2023. ....the invasion of Sind was all the easier because the leaders of the Buddhist community were in opposition to the Hindu rulers and sympathized with the Arabic [sic] invaders and sometimes even helped them.
  35. ↑ Hiltebeitel, Alf (May 1999). Rethinking India's Oral and Classical Epics: Draupadi Among Rajputs, Muslims, and Dalits. University of Chicago Press. p. 281. ISBN   9780226340500 . Retrieved September 8, 2023. While the results of Buddhist collaboration in Sind were short-lived, the history of Hinduism there continued in multiple forms, first with Brahman-led resistance continuing in upper Sind around Multan...
  36. 1 2 Vijaya Ramaswamy, ed. (2017). Migrations in Medieval and Early Colonial India. Routledge. ISBN   9781351558242 . Retrieved 17 January 2022.
  37. ↑ "The fall of Multan laid the Indus valley at the feet of the conqueror. The tribes came in, 'ringing bells and beating drums and dancing,' in token of welcome. The Hindu rulers had oppressed them heavily, and the Jats and Meds and other tribes were on the side of the invaders. The work of conquest, as often happened in India, was thus aided by the disunion of the inhabitants, and jealousies of race and creed conspired to help the Muslims. To such suppliants, Mohammad Qasim gave the liberal terms that the Arabs usually offered to all but inveterate foes. He imposed the customary poll tax, took hostages for good conduct, and spared the people's lands and lives. He even left their shrines undesecrated: 'The temples,' he proclaimed, 'shall be inviolate, like the churches of the Christians, the synagogues of the Jews, and the altars of the Magians.'" Stanley Lane-Poole, Medieval India under Mohammedan Rule, 712-1764, G.P. Putnam's Sons. New York, 1970. p. 9-10
  38. 1 2 3 4 5 The Chachnamah, An Ancient History of Sind, Giving the Hindu period down to the Arab Conquest. (1900). Translated from the Persian by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg. Karachi: Commissioners Press.
  39. ↑ Butalia, Romesh C. (Jul 30, 1998). The Evolution of the Artillery in India: From the Battle of Plassey (1757) to the Revolt of 1857. Allied Publishers. ISBN   9788170238720 . Retrieved Jul 30, 2020– via Google Books.
  40. ↑ Wink 2002a , pp. 202–203 "The aim of the expedition was not the propagation of Islam but to eradicate piracy and protect commerce, a motive which was ennobled as an attempt to release the Muslim women who had been captured off Debal"
  41. 1 2 Moosvi, Shireen (2011). "The Medieval State and Caste". Social Scientist. 39 (7/8): 3–8. JSTOR   41289417.
  42. ↑ Wink 2002b , p. 206: "And Al-Qasim wrote letters `to the kings of Hind (bi-mulūk-i-hind) calling upon them all to surrender and accept the faith of Islam (bi-muṭāwa`at-o-islām)'. Ten thousand-strong cavalries were sent to Kannauj from Multan, with a decree of the caliph, inviting the people `to share in the blessings of Islam, to submit and do homage and pay tribute'."
  43. ↑ Al-Baladhuri 1924, p. 223.
  44. ↑ Wink 2002b, p. 206.
  45. ↑ Tripathi 1989, p. 218.
  46. ↑ Blankinship 1994, p. 132.
  47. ↑ Wink 2002b, p. 207.
  48. ↑ The Voice of Islam. Jamiyat-ul-Falah. 1967. p. 96. The origin of al - Awza'i is traced from Sind, wherefrom he or his parents came to Syria...

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